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SELF-HELP METHODS 
OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


A GUIDE AND ALLY FOR TEACHERS OF 
ELEMENTARY ENGLISH 


By Juris H. Woatrartu 
Co-Author of 
Self-Help English Lessons, New-World Speller, 
Everyday Words 





Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York 
WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 
1925 


WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 


Established 1905 by Caspar W. Hodgson 


YonkKERS-ON-Hupson, New York 
2126 Pratrte AVENUE, CHICAGO 


Believing that any contribution to the 
teacher’s equipment that will enable her to 
improve the quality of her English instruc- 
tion will necessarily exert a beneficent influ- 
ence on the entire work of the school, the 
publishers send out this book with confidence 
that it will play a helpful part in aiding our 
schools more nearly to approach the stand- 
ards society is setting for them 


WSHMTE-1 
Copyright 1925 by World Book Company 


Copyright in Great Britain 
All rights reserved 





PRINTED IN U.S.A. 


FOREWORD 


It has been said that in our schools there are as many 


_ types of teachers as there are types of pupils. This book 


was written with a sincere desire to help in some degree all 
sorts and conditions of teachers and teachers-to-be. For 
the well-trained, experienced teacher it aims to suggest 


— attitudes of mind and methods of procedure that will sup- 


-plement her ideals and practice. For the young, inexpe- 
~ rienced, or untrained teacher it hopes to prove a sane, 
reliable guide that will broaden her horizon and enable her 


to avoid pitfalls while experience and special study are 
gradually giving her the vision and the skill for a more inde- 
pendent steering of her course. For the students in teacher- 
training classes it strives to provide stimulating matter for 
thought and discussion. And finally, for teachers everywhere 
who meet at regular intervals for mutual help and encourage- 
ment, the book seeks to offer a basis for the definite, sys- 
tematic, and constructive study of the problems involved 
in fostering that most social of all activities — the use of 
language as a means of communication. 

After attending a course of lectures on English instruction, 


nee a young teacher plaintively remarked, “The lectures were 


very interesting, and the principles discussed were very im- 


“~ portant, but at the close of the course I knew little more 


- about putting the principles into practice than I did before 


- hearing the lectures.’ It was probably not a part of the 


- lecturer’s purpose in that course to discuss specific methods 


_ of teaching, but the young teacher’s perplexity reveals the 


aes 
? 


Mn 


™ 
e” 
_ 


a 
if) 
~ 


necessity of bridging the gap, by no means narrow, between 


general principles and the mode of their application. Because 


~ of this need, and because in any case theory is far in advance 


of practice, this book is dedicated to the task of considering 
the teaching of English from the standpoint of actual class- 


il 


iv FOREWORD 


room procedure. If it succeeds in giving the kind of help 
that will enable an ambitious teacher to improve the quality 
of her instruction, the purpose of the book will be achieved. 

At no time is an author more humbly conscious of indebted- 
ness to others than when attempting to express it. Since 
it is impossible to mention by name all who either directly or 
indirectly aided in preparing this book, its author takes this 
opportunity to express her gratitude to the following groups 
of persons: the scores of teachers in thirteen states, rep- 
resenting every section of the country, who contributed 
thousands of children’s compositions for an exhaustive study 
of the outstanding composition needs of our schools; the 
many personal friends in the supervising and teaching ranks 
who have kept her in closest touch with their English work; 
the critics whose suggestions on all or on parts of the manu- 
script added significantly to the worth of the book; and — 
perhaps most of all — those leaders of educational thought 
whose inspiring and scholarly work lights the way for all 
serious students of education. ‘The author believes that 
there can be no better way of paying her debt to these friends 
and these great leaders than by passing on to others some of 
the help and inspiration she has derived from them. 


J}: Heys 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 
I. Tue Book anp How to UszE It 


The Purpose of the Book 

The Plan of the Book 

How to Use the Book 

For Thought and Discussion 
Books for Reading and Study . 


PAGE 
rt 
1 
Q 
3 
8 
8 
II. First Steps ry Composition 5 ; i eee 
The Foundation 2 , ; ‘ : : Pe adh A 
Informal Conversation Daas bi 
Oral Composition 16 
A Typical Picture Techn! 22 
Telling Original Stories 28 
Written Language 33 


For Thought and Diecisaion : : : : char 

For Reading and Study . : , t : Plies tae 

II. Tue Treacuer, tHe TEXTBOOK, AND THE PUPIL . 44 

The Factors in the Learning Process } P . 44 

The Pupil ; ‘ ‘ F ; : : . 44 

The Teacher. ; - , : : 4 «io 

The Textbook . : , F : : ‘ sn coe 

Learning to Study . : Pan adc 8 

Learning How to Study froin a Texthook: : 54 
Further Suggestions for Teaching Children to Use the 

Textbook . : . é . , AW ey 

For Thought and Dicisin ; i , : . 64 

For Reading and Study . ; ; : ‘ . 64 

IV. Seur-Hevp Activities : ; ; : : . 66 

Introduction . ‘ : td a 

Self-Help Activities pean in Bidexs : ; mah iy f 

Self-Help Activities Resulting in Knowledge . Ta 

Self-Help Activities Resulting in eatin ‘ GI TAS 

For Thought and Discussion . 4 ; Nair ef 

For Reading and Study . ; 3 3 3 . 88 

V. Correct UsaceE . ; : ; ; } : HOkeG 

Introduction . . : ; ‘ : . 89 

The Use of the Wales ; A 3 ; . “1 hee 


vi CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 
The Correct Use of Words 
The Need of More Advanced Correntite ‘Aetyingn 
Methods That Afford Variety . ; 
Methods That Make a More Mature Appealts 
Methods That Make a Wider Social Appeal . 
Miscellaneous Correct-Speech Problems . 
For Thought and Discussion . 
For Reading and Study . 


VI. Oran LanauaGce LESSONS IN THE THIRD AND FourtH 
GRADES 

Introduction : 
Developing a Sentence Betise : 
Learning to Tell Class Stories. 
Telling Individual Stories 
Cautions and Suggestions 
Telling Stories from Pictures . 
Later Steps in Story-Telling 
Reproduction . : 
Dramatization ‘ p 
For Thought and Tynctianions ‘ 
For Reading and Study . 


VII. Written ComposiITiION IN THE THIRD AND FourTH 
GRADES . 
Introduction . : 
Progressive Steps in Written Composite 
Writing Original Stories . 
Letter Writing 
Learning to Keep a Dine 
Anticipating Needs and Digieuien ; 
The Relative Importance of Oral and Written Work 
Reminders and Suggestions 
For Thought and Discussion . 
For Reading and Study . 


VIII. Composition IN THE FirrH AND SixtH GRADES 
Introduction 
Discovering Class and Tadisidual N uaaal 
Advanced Steps in Composition 


PAGE 


99 
104 
105 
108 
114 
115 
118 
118 


120 
120 
121 
124 
128 
129 
131 
132 
140 
145 
155 
155 


157 
157 
159 
167 
170 
173 
174 
177 
177 
178 
179 


180 
180 
181 
186 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


Vocabulary Growth : 
Further Suggestions on Written Garistcitton ; 
Advanced Steps in Letter Writing . 

Observing and Reporting Results 

Making the Most of the Gang Instinct . 
Sentence Study ‘ K 

Word Study 

Grammar Facts That Ave a Meatis af Self-Help 
For Thought and Discussion . | : 
For Reading and Study . 


IX. Composition IN THE HicgHER GRADES 


Introduction 

Project — Wain an Teyetere : 
Oral Composition — Establishing Talent 
Written Composition 

Correct Usage — Discovering Ferrets 
Making an Inventory 

Formulating Class Aims ; 

Setting the Self-Help Machinery in Opeeniote 
Projects That Cultivate Initiative . 
Composition Methods 

Sentence Study 

Word Study 

Supervised Study A 

Other Methods of Self-Help Beatie 
Written Composition . 

Grammar Facts That Afford Self. Help 
For Thought and Discussion . 

For Reading and Study . 


X. InrormMat LANGUAGE TEACHING 


Why Informal Language Lessons Are Neetled 
Worth-While Activities : ; 
The Art of Questioning 

Teaching Children How to ‘Anewes Ghescnuae 


Further Opportunities for Informal Conversation. . 


For Thought and Discussion . 
For Reading and Study . 


Vii 
PAGE 
198 
199 
200 
202 
203 
204 
209 
213 
Q15 
216 


Q17 
217 
217 
218 
219 
221 
222 
223 
223 
225 
231 
233 
244 
250 
250 
252 
256 
259 
260 


261 
261 
261 
262 
265 
266 
269 
269 


vill 


CHAPTER 


XI. Composition STANDARDS AND MEASURING SCALES 


CONTENTS 


Why Composition Scales Are Needed 
Kinds of Composition Scales Required 
Making Grade Composition Scales . 
Standard Composition Seales . 
Diagnostic Tests and Drills 

For Reading and Study . 


XII. Grape OBJECTIVES IN ENGLISH 


INDEX 


Introduction 

First-Grade Ohictives 
Second-Grade Objectives 
Third-Grade Objectives . 
Fourth-Grade Objectives 
Fifth-Grade Objectives 

Sixth-Grade Objectives 
Seventh-Grade Objectives 

Eighth- and Ninth-Grade biecuven 


PAGE 
270 
270 
271 
271 
276 
Q77 
Q77 


280 
280 
280 
280 
281 
282 
282 
283 
284 


285 


287 


SELF-HELP METHODS OF 
TEACHING ENGLISH 


CHAPTER ONE 


Tur Book anp How To Uszs It 


THE PURPOSE OF THE BOOK 


The significance of the title. The title “Self-Help 
Methods of Teaching English ”’ indicates that learning is a 
self-help process, and that only the kind of training that 
results in the self-help type of response recognizes the full 
significance of the word teaching. So far from cultivating a 
narrow type of individualism, self-help affords the only cer- 
tain approach to the highest type of socialized activity. 

The general purpose of the book. As intimated in the 
Foreword, it is the purpose of this book to help teachers to 
improve their classroom procedure in English. This is a 
sufficiently comprehensive aim to demand all the space the 
book affords. The inclusion of chapters devoted to the psy- 
chological laws underlying principles of teaching, and to a 
more or less abstract discussion of these principles, would 
result in a book so general in its nature that it would afford 
a minimum amount of the kind of help it seeks to give. The 
scope of the book is therefore limited in the following ways: 


1. The book contains no lessons in psychology, and no knowledge 
of psychology is necessary for its successful use. 

2. It discusses principles of teaching only in direct connection 
with their application to concrete problems. 

3. It is limited to important phases of English work directly con- 
cerned with expression by means of words; that is, to oral and writ- 
ten composition. No attempt is made fully to cover the ground. 
It is hoped, however, that the methods advocated may prove sug- 
gestive in dealing with topics that are necessarily omitted. 

4, It is mainly limited to the grades in which a textbook is com- 
monly used — grades three to nine inclusive. In order, however, to 

1 


2 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


give some useful hints to first- and second-grade teachers, and to 
show teachers of the following grades what foundation for their 
work is presupposed, one chapter is devoted to the first steps in 
composition. 

5. No arguments are adduced to support the emphasis on oral 
composition and the advocacy of motivation, a social atmosphere 
and practice, and the self-help attitude. It is assumed that these 
fundamental matters are no longer debatable, and consequently 
their acceptance by all readers is taken for granted. 

6. Finally, the book is not concerned with teaching under con- 
ditions not yet commonly realized. No attempt is made to suggest 
methods still largely ideal. Before these can be adopted, or even 
clearly formulated, there must be significant changes in our schools. 
Teachers must be better trained; curricula must be simpler, more 
unified, and more courageously relegated to their proper place; 
classes must be smaller; and equipment must be more extensive, 
less rigidly installed, and more adaptable to use through the pupil’s 
initiative. This book seeks to help teachers under generally existing 
conditions. 


A summary. To summarize, it is the purpose of this 
book to help teachers of English, with or without a knowledge 
of psychology, immediately to improve their instruction in 
oral and written composition by using simple and thoroughly 
tested methods applicable anywhere under present conditions. 


THE PLAN OF THE BOOK 


Treatment of subject matter. Since the English work of 
the various grades is determined largely by courses of study 
prepared by local supervising officials of one rank or another, 
this book does not outline a grade-by-grade course of study. 
All subject matter is treated topically, each topic being 
developed in a simple, progressive way. Important topics 
appear again and again in their various relationships, thus 
emphasizing the unity of the English work. 

The Index. The Index is an indispensable feature of the 
book. With its help every topic can be fully studied ir in its 
relation to other phases of composition work. 


THE BOOK AND HOW TO USE IT 3 


The bibliographies. The bibliographies are designed to 
help the teacher who wishes to do further reading. The aim 
has been merely to list a few books and articles that have 
proved helpful to many teachers. 

The questions and suggestions at the ends of chapters. 
The questions and suggestions appearing at the ends of chap- 
ters are intended to stimulate thought and discussion. 


HOW TO USE THE BOOK 


Individual study of the book. The boy who found among 
his Christmas gifts a small dictionary and proceeded to read 
it from cover to cover was making a futile effort to secure 
from his new tool all possible aid. A book of methods is in 
one sense a tool, and, like a dictionary, a hammer, a needle, 
or a mowing machine, it should be used in the way it is best 
qualified to serve. Here are a few suggestions for the effec- 
tive use of this particular tool. 

If you are seeking immediate aid in solving a perplexing 
problem, take the following steps: 


1. Read the Foreword in order to understand the purpose of the 
book; the Contents to discover in a general way what the book con- 
tains; and the preceding part of this chapter so that you will realize 
the scope of the book. 

2. Go over the Index carefully to find out in greater detail what 
the book contains, and also how the matter is organized. If the 
book is your own, check topics that excite your immediate interest 
because of their relation to problems you are trying to solve. 

3. Select a topic in which you need help, and look it up in the 
Index. For instance, if you are having difficulty in leading your 
pupils to talk freely about a picture they are studying and to give 
orally a short story about it, look up Story-Telling. Scan the sub- 
topics until you reach the words from pictures. Look up one by one 
the references following these words, and study them carefully. 
Give special attention to the lessons worked out as illustrations. 

Now take a picture, imagine your class before you, and plan a 
lesson. Keep in mind your aims, formulate clearly the questions 
you will ask, and anticipate the answers your pupils may give. 


4 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Build up in imagination the entire lesson, remembering at every step 
that it is your purpose to train your pupils to tell the story, and not 
to tell it yourself. 

If you follow this plan with several pictures, you will be astonished 
to find how rapidly will grow your skill in questioning, your power to 
lead your pupils without doing their work for them, and your interest 
in your work. 

4. Use the book in the same way for other topics. At every 
point utilize also the suggestions of your course of study; all help 
given you by principal or supervisor; and above all, the results of 
your own thought and experience. 


If you wish to study the entire subject in a progressive way 
rather than to plunge at the outset into a specific problem, 
the following suggestions may help you: 


1. Take steps 1 and 2 as recommended on page 3. 

2. Take up one chapter at a time, following the order of the book. 
Read the chapter as a whole. Read it again, this time topically. 
In connection with each topic, look up and study thoughtfully all 
Index references to the matter concerned. If you have other books 
of method at hand, look up the subject in these, and try to recall 
all that experience or earlier study has taught you regarding it. 
Study the suggestions and questions at the close of the chapter, and 
think them through to a finish. 

When you have finished the chapter, formulate clearly, but as 
concisely as possible, the few outstanding facts that seem to you 
absolutely essential to improved teaching of each topic under con- 
sideration, and enter them in a notebook for future reference. 

Formulate your aims in terms of accomplishment by the pupil. 
What language habits, what skills, what knowledge underlying 
habits and skills, should result from your teaching of the subject you 
have been studying? ‘Try to determine to what extent these aims 
have been attained in the past, and in what degree you have failed 
to achieve them. Seek for the causes of failures, and in the light 
of your study plan in detail what you will do at once to improve 
your instruction in the phase of composition work you have been con- 
sidering. 

3. The same plan may be followed with succeeding chapters, 
or a plan modified from time to time in accordance with your own 
expanding ideas and ideals. 


THE BOOK AND HOW TO USE IT 5 


Perhaps it is unnecessary to say that the kind of specific 
study outlined should be supplemented by study that will 
result in a knowledge of the principles that underlie all teach- 
ing. Try to secure and to study at least one or two of the 
books listed at the end of this chapter, and as time goes on, 
some of the books relating more specifically to the teaching 
of English. Every teacher, if possible, — certainly every 
school, — should own several of these books as a nucleus of a 
working library of professional literature. 

Group study of the book. If you happen to be teaching in 
a one-room school, you will have no opportunity for group 
study. If, on the other hand, you are within reach of other 
teachers also interested in composition-teaching problems, 
you will find group study invaluable. It affords an oppor- 
tunity to discuss problems with others also engaged in their 
solution ; to get help and to give help; to compare results and 
work out standards that are reliable; and to cultivate the 
enthusiasm and the sane competition that community work 
always stimulates. It also affords an opportunity for prin- 
cipals and supervisors, occasionally at least, to study with the 
teachers whose work they direct, contributing the results of 
their wider knowledge and experience. 

Here are a few suggestions for group study: 

1. In preparation for group study follow the suggestions given 
under points 1 and 2 on page 3. 

2. At the first meeting decide how often you will come together, 
and select the most convenient day and hour. Plan to attend the 
meetings regularly, offering no excuse for absence that would not 
justify absence from school. 

3. Organize by electing a chairman and a secretary. Discuss 
the way in which you will use the book. Shall you take up the sub- 
jects in the order in which they occur in the book, or shall you select 
some topic that at the moment seems to be of special importance in 
your schools? Definitely choose the topic for the next meeting. 

4. Before the following meeting, each teacher should study the 
chosen topic as fully as possible, and come prepared to report both 


6 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


her difficulties and her success. Come prepared to ask questions 
and to answer them. 

5. The leader may open the meeting by giving briefly some 
incident from her own experience that will serve to emphasize the 
importance of the topic to be considered, or she may adopt any other 
plan that will seem helpful. With books open, outline the matter 
studied and discuss it frankly and freely. Give special attention 
to difficulties propounded by any teacher. At the close of the dis- 
cussion, the leader, or a teacher previously appointed by her for the 
purpose, may summarize the discussion, emphasizing the points that 
seem of vital importance in securing improved work. 

6. Select a phase of composition work that all will try to improve 
before the following meeting, when results should be reported. 

7. Assign the subject for the next meeting, and adjourn. 


This is but one way of conducting group study, but it is a 
simple way that has been found effective. Asa rule, the less 
formal the meeting, the more helpful it will be. It need 
scarcely be said that the best method of conducting group 
study is the method that grows out of the experiences of the 
group concerned. The method suggested may serve to set 
the ball in motion. 

Whatever manner of conducting group study is ultimately 
adopted, the following suggestions will prove helpful. All 
have been fruitful of valuable results, and introduced from 
time to time, they will serve to furnish the variety that teach- 
ers, no less than pupils, need in order to keep alive a healthy 
interest in the work at hand. 


1. If the topic under discussion relates to written composition, 
bring specimens of the children’s work, good, bad, and average. 
These papers should be carefully compared and put in charge of the 
secretary or of a committee, to be available for study at any time. 
Eventually such a collection of papers studied in a comparative way 
will serve as a means of arriving at reliable standards. See Chap- 
ter Eleven. 

2. If possible, occasionally have a teacher bring her class to the 
meeting and give a demonstration lesson, the lesson to be discussed 
after the pupils are dismissed. This exercise will prove invaluable 


THE BOOK AND HOW TO USE IT q 


to the inexperienced teacher, and will afford the skilled teacher a 
rich opportunity for social service. 

8. Use committees as a means of doing concentrated work. For 
instance, it is sometimes a good plan to devote a meeting to the 
answering of miscellaneous questions, the questions being dropped 
from time to time into a box maintained for the purpose. At the 
meeting preceding the one to be devoted to this exercise, the ques- 
tions should be classified and distributed, each group of related 
questions being assigned to a committee whose duty it will be 
thoroughly to investigate the subject concerned. At the appointed 
time, each committee should bring in a report that will be well 
organized and incorporate the best thought available on the prob- 
lem. Such reports should be as brief as is consistent with clear- 
ness, so that time may remain for discussion. 

4. Committees may be used at all times to form a connecting 
link between this book and other more technical books. For in- 
stance, if the subject of projects were under discussion, a committee 
would do valuable work by reporting on some standard treatise such 
as Professor Kilpatrick’s classic pamphlet, “‘The Project Method,” 
or some other work. This would tend to stimulate further study 
that would be broadening and that would result in a fuller compre- 
hension of the “‘why” of many methods that are recommended in 
various books. 

5. In all discussions guard against too hasty generalization. Do 
not accept unquestioningly statements made in this or in other 
books, or statements made by teachers, even though they are given 
as facts. Many will be unquestioned, but others will be challenged. 
This is as it should be. When a doubt attaches to a statement of 
principle or of procedure, consider the statement as a hypothesis. 
It will then serve as the starting point for investigation. Whatever 
the ultimate verdict, the investigation will be worth while if the 
matter concerned is important enough to have been challenged. 

6. Occasionally devote a meeting to the study of the adopted 
textbook. With definite aims set before the group as goals of attain- 
ment, determine how the textbook can best be used to secure the 
desired results. Give special attention to methods of training pupils 
in the independent use of the book. 


In closing this chapter, a word of caution regarding the 
too close limitation of study groups may not be amiss. In 
some places it is the custom to conduct meetings that bring 


8 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


together all teachers of one particular grade. This practice 
is sometimes wise, because some problems are limited fairly 
closely to children of a given age. The practice may well be 
questioned, however, in connection with such study as has 
been under consideration in this chapter. 

The teacher who limits her study to the work of her own 
grade will often fail to base the activities of her pupils on 
what has preceded, and she will get no inspiration and prac- 
tical suggestion from the work for which her own is the 
foundation. While it is natural that a teacher of the third 
grade devote more attention to the details of third-grade 
teaching than to the details of first- or sixth- or eighth-grade 
English work, she should be familiar with the English prob- 
lems of all grades in a general way. For this reason, it 
seems desirable that English problems be studied by the 
teachers of all grades together, at least until each teacher has 
broadened her horizon sufficiently to include a sympathetic 
and comprehending view of the subject as a whole. 


For TuHouGcut AND DIscussion 


1. Having in mind a considerable number of your pupils, what 
do you consider the weakest feature of their language work at the 
present time ? 

2. In your judgment, is the weakness due to a poor foundation 
laid in earlier grades, to some lack in your own teaching, to excessive 
requirements in the course of study, to a lack of interest on the part 
of the pupils, to some cause not suggested, or to several or all of 
these circumstances ? 

3. Why is it necessary to discover the cause of individual or class 
weakness ? 

4. The primary weakness and its cause being determined, what 
plan shall you make for starting the work of reconstruction ? 

5. What harmful results to the pupil may result from further 
delay ? 


THE BOOK AND HOW TO USE IT 9 


Books For READING AND Stupy 


The following books are recommended, because they will help to 
give the general insight that will make possible self-help teaching in 
all subjects. The books suggested for reading in later chapters are 
recommended almost without exception because of the inspiration 
and help they will afford in teaching English. 


Baeiry. The Educative Process. The Macmillan Company. 

Cotvin. The Learning Process. The Macmillan Company. 

Dewey. New Schools for Old. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Earnart. Types of Teaching. Houghton Mifflin Company. 

JAMES. Talks to Teachers. Henry Holt & Co. 

McMorry. Elementary School Standards. World Book Company. 

Meriam. Child Life and the Curriculum. World Book Company. 

Parker. Teaching the Elementary Subjects. Ginn & Co. 

STRAYER AND Norswortuy. Howto Teach. The Macmillan Com- 
pany. 

THORNDIKE. The Principles of Teaching. A. G. Seiler. 

Educational Psychology: Briefer Course. ‘Teachers College, 

Columbia University. 





CHAPTER TWO 
First Steps iN CoMPOSsITION 


THE FOUNDATION 


© pre-school foundation. The first-grade teacher of 
vera. uecades ago began her year’s work with the convic- 
i. that she was to deal with a child whose mind was a 
blank page on which she could write at will. The teacher of 
today knows that the first-grade newcomer, whether enter- 
ing directly from the home or from the kindergarten, for 
several years has diligently been doing his own writing. 
Under a corps of active teachers, — his human and mate- 
rial environment; his sense-aroused curiosity and irresistible 
urge to activity; and his physical appetites and social in- 
stincts, — he has acquired a larger stock of ideas and more 
spontaneous habits of self-expression than he will ever again 
accumulate in an equal period of time. He is, in fact, some- 
thing of a veteran. 

The basic problem. The basic problem, therefore, is the 
intelligent appraisal of the child’s pre-school acquisitions in 
order to insure continued growth under the new conditions. 
What are some of the important language powers revealed by a 
study of the earliest stage of his education? Here area few: 


1. He has learned to talk. For several years the child has made 
known his wants and desires by means of words; he has exchanged 
ideas with his family and with playmates; and he has prattled at 
length about his little pleasures, belongings, and experiences, some- 
times with no great concern for the impression he was making, if 
only he gained a sympathetic ear. Often his chattering has been 
almost as completely a bodily matter as are the gambols and hand- 
springs that drain off his superfluous physical energy. But he has 
discovered that language is a means of communication, and he has 
used this convenient tool freely and without self-consciousness, and 
for more or less conscious purposes. 

10 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 11 


2. He has something original to talk about. Whatever the imme- 
diate purpose of his spoken words, back of them is a mass of ideas 
gained through his alert senses. 

3. He has a stock of English habits. Some of them are good, and 
many of them are bad. All were gained through imitation. 

4. He has a vocabulary, usually adequate to his needs. This 
vocabulary may contain many hundreds of words. 

5. He has a well-developed tendency to express his ideas. vt 
whatever source they were derived, he expresses then#t 2 eae 
either words or actions. - >? gor 


The dangers of the situation. Too ofén the school sud- 
denly and violently checks the child’s progress. Instead of 
remaining a natural means of communicating his own ideas, 
language becomes to the pupil a means of saying something 
that originated outside himself. Instead of discovering new 
facts, as of old, he has the shadows of ideas doled out to him. 
He is told what to talk about, and what to do and how to do 
it, frequently without any apparent motive. Expression in 
words is no longer self-expression. It simply becomes a fea- 
ture of the daily grind. An immediate and deplorable result 
is the loss of interest and the development of self-conscious- 
ness. Originality and the budding thought-habit vanish. 

Aremedy suggested. In order to avoid these dangers, and 
at the same time to provide for growth in language power, two 
lines of language work are necessary : 

1. The first kind may be termed informal conversation. It is 
concerned with preserving the spontaneity of the pre-school period, 
while broadening the interests of the children and socializing them. 
While accuracy of sentence form and word usage is by no means 
neglected, it is never allowed to interfere with freedom of thought 
and expression. 

2. The second type of language work may be termed oral compo- 
sition, the term composition implying that special attention is given 
to the way in which thoughts are expressed. 


The conversation type of language work will begin on the 
first day of school, but oral composition will be introduced 


12 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


only when the pupil has had enough school experience to 
make it certain that he can give some attention to his sen- 
tences and to his choice of words without losing sight of the 
thoughts he is trying to express. 


INFORMAL CONVERSATION 


Introduction. Every school exercise that requires the use 
of words as a means of expression becomes an informal lan- 
guage lesson. If the teacher appreciates this fact and seizes 
her opportunity, the children’s vocabulary and power to 
express themselves in clear, concise English will grow nor- 
mally along with their expanding interests. 

Assuming that the teacher is alive to the situation, no 
special conversation lessons are necessary. The morning 
talks; the discussion incident to reading, nature, and num- 
ber lessons; the conversation demanded by constructive 
work of all kinds; and the give and take of ideas in carrying 
on class projects, all provide opportunities for the best kind 
of language practice. And while the teacher is definitely 
holding before herself as one of her aims the cultivation of 
the children’s language, the children have a more immediate 
purpose that insures the same free use of language as on the 
playground or on the homeward way. 

Practical suggestions for informal language training. 
Create as far as possible the free, home atmosphere. The chil- 
dren will then lose the feeling of being under strange condi- 
tions, and will talk as readily as they do outside of school. 
This is difficult in a large room with fixed furniture, but it 
can be done, and often has been done. Banish all restric- 
tions that are not necessary to preserve the rights of all. 
Even though the class be large, frequently gather the entire 
flock about you for an intimate talk. Ask them about their 
brothers and sisters, their toys, the games they like to play, 
and any of their other interests. Let them bring things 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 13 


that interest them, and talk about these. Tell them about ,;,; 
things that you enjoyed when you were a child. Tell them L 
stories in your best manner; play simple games with them. 
When you have succeeded in loosening the tongue of even the 
most diffident, you will have overcome the most serious 
obstacle to free conversation. 

Make language improvement your chief aim during at least 
one period each day. Sometimes it will be the construction 
period, sometimes the period preparatory to reading, some- 
times the nature period. Plan carefully for this lesson so 
that you will secure a maximum of expression from the chil- 
dren. Sometimes have each child tell at least one thing 
about the subject under discussion. At other times do not 
try to have all in a large class participate. The point is to 
have all talk as much as possible without making the work 
stilted or artificial. 
| Train the children to ask questions. Too many teachers 
ask questions that had better be asked by the pupils. For 
instance, imagine that a child has been relating some per- 
sonal experience — attending a party, visiting a circus, play- 
ing a game, or the like. Is it better in such a case for the 
teacher to ask further questions to draw out the child, or to 
say to the class, “If there is anything else you would like to 
have Jennie tell about, you may ask her questions ”’? 

There is no school exercise that does not afford opportuni- 
ties for questioning. When the lesson is well under way, 
encourage the children to ask questions. If they go too far 
afield, the teacher has an opportunity to train them to stick 
to the matter in hand; if they ask pertinent questions, they 
are having excellent training in thinking and in expressing. 
Both are essential language activities. 

Make expression in words the servant of all other activities. 
For example, a class is planning to make a picture book to 
send at Christmas to a hospital or other place. The pupils 


14 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


are to decide for themselves how large the book is to be; 
whether paper or cloth shall be used for the leaves; whether 
black-and-white or colored pictures, or both, shall be used; 
and all other details. ‘They are to look over their own pic- 
ture books for suggestions, and, if they choose, bring them to 
school to show to the rest of the class. 

If the children are wide awake, there will be differences of 
opinion. One child will favor a large book, while another will 
prefer a smaller one. Each child must be allowed to give his 
opinion and be required to back it with good reasons. Even- 
tually a definite size must be agreed upon, but before this is 
possible, some one must succeed in convincing his classmates 
that his ideas are best. This makes necessary a clear argu- 
ment, and the project therefore gives the teacher the oppor- 
tunity to work for clear, accurate language, not primarily for 
the sake of the language, but because without it the matter 
under discussion could not be satisfactorily settled. The 
more highly socialized the school life, the more free, natural, 
and purposeful will become communication by means of 
language. 

Construction projects are particularly valuable for develop- 
ing language power because they offer so rich an opportunity 
for worth-while conversation. Read Chapter Ten for addi- 
tional suggestions. 

Let your own language at all tumes be a model of clear, simple, 
forceful English. This is, of course, a prime essential, since 
language is learned largely through imitation. Some of the 
pupils may not hear much English at home, and many may 
hear only incorrect English. It is therefore important that 
the teacher set a watch on her own lips. Unless the use of 
good English at all times has become habitual, she should 
consciously cultivate the habit, not only when telling stories 
but whenever she speaks. 

No mistake should be made as to what the term “‘ good 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 15 


English’ means. A critic teacher in a normal school once 
told a student after a practice lesson in first-grade reading 
that her English was poor, and that she should not call on the 
children in a regular order. Of course, the critic was in fault 
in not citing definite instances of poor English, as was proved 
on the following day. The young teacher-to-be began her 
second lesson by saying to her class, “‘ Today I shall call on 
you promiscuously and very frequently ; that will necessitate 
what on your part?” Naturally it necessitated an uncom- 
prehending stare. Note the adjectives clear, sumple, forceful, 
at the beginning of the preceding paragraph. 

Be on the alert to note English errors made by the pupils at 
any tume. This does not imply that each error must be cor- 
rected at the time it is made, for this would often interrupt 
the stream of thought, and do more harm than good. But 
without distracting the child’s attention from what he is 
trying to communicate, the teacher may remark, “It is 
better to say —,”’ and have the correct form given. Or the 
teacher may remark, ‘‘ People usually say —,’’ and have 
the suggested form repeated by the child who made the 
error. 

When immediate correction is not attempted, the teacher 
should make a mental note of the error, and later record it in 
a notebook kept for the purpose. After a week or two, the 
errors most frequently made may first be given attention, 
games being a useful form of drill. For this kind of cor- 
rective work, see Chapter Four. 

Train your pupils at all times to stand erect when speaking; 
in general to face the audience as in real life; to use a pleasing, 
well-controlled voice audible to every one in the room; and to 
pronounce all words accurately and distinctly. These matters 
are of vital importance, but too often they are relegated 
to the language lesson and neglected at other times. See 
Chapter Four for suggestions on voice training. 


16 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


The importance of projects in the first and second grades. 
The language value of a project has already been emphasized 
in connection with the making of a Christmas picture book. 
Some other projects that have been used successfully in the 
primary grades are the following: planning and making a 
toy shop, afterward used as an aid in developing number 
relations; making a farm on the sand table; dramatizing 
stories; planning a Hallowe’en party; planting seeds, and 
watching and reporting their development; making books 
of various sorts; playing Mother Goose. 

If the children decide what they will do, plan all the steps, 
and carry out their plans in such a way that their purpose is 
accomplished, not only will they have an opportunity for 
free discussion, but they cannot get along without it. 

At the close of this chapter, several references are given to 
books or articles that afford help in training children to work 
by projects. All give concrete illustrations, and will prove 
valuable to all grade teachers. 


ORAL COMPOSITION 


The purpose of composition lessons. It has sometimes 
been urged that since language is the universal medium of 
expression, no language lessons as such are necessary, the 
other activities of the school affording ample opportunity for 
the required training. Possibly under ideal conditions with 
ideal teachers, and perhaps ideal pupils, the argument would 
be sound. The plan has been tried, however, again and 
again, with disappointing results. It is now generally con- 
ceded that a more rapid growth in language power results 
under a system providing for lessons whose main aim is the 
mastery of the technique that is to be applied in all situations 
requiring the use of language. 

Significance of the word “ composition.”” Whenever a 
person combines two or more words to express a thought, he 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 17 


is composing, or, in other words, he is making a composition. 
The word composition is here used, however, to indicate two 
or more related sentences on a given subject. The word 
story may be considered a synonym of composition, and may 
be used with the youngest children. 

When to begin oral composition. Oral composition may 
be begun when the children have had sufficient school experi- 
ence to overcome native shyness, to work happily and with- 
out self-consciousness in the social group, and to talk freely 
and to some purpose in carrying on school activities. The 
middle of the first-grade year often finds all conditions satis- 
factory for the beginning of the lessons. 

Aims. In the first and second grades, the teacher’s ulti- 
mate aim is to train the pupils to use language correctly and 
effectively in all the ordinary situations of life. 

The teacher’s immediate aim is to train the children to 
tell an interesting story of a few short sentences in simple, 
correct English, and with some degree of spontaneity and 
pleasure in the telling. 

The children’s aim is to interest their classmates, or other 
audience, by telling a story as well as they can tell it. This 
social motive is easily established. After telling the children 
an old favorite, or an enticing new story, the teacher asks 
them if they enjoyed the story, and then suggests that they 
learn to tell stories so that they can give pleasure to others. 
A majority of children respond eagerly to this suggestion. 

The first work should be very simple, and a direct out- 
growth of previous training. 


A TYPICAL COMPOSITION LESSON 


A first lesson might be conducted as follows. Bear in 
mind that the pupils for several months have been talking 
freely about a wide variety of interests, and have had much 
unconscious language training. 


18 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Teacher: When I was a little girl, I had a pet dog that could walk 
on his hind legs. He always did it when he heard music. How 
many of you have a dog? 

(The children who have dogs respond in the usual way, and the 
teacher addresses one who is a ready talker. This starts the les- 
son with desirable promptness.) 

Teacher: My dog’s name was Carlo. What is your dog’s name, 
Mary? 

Mary: My dog’s name is Radio. 

Teacher: Is Radio a large dog ? 

Mary: No, Miss Drew, Radio is just a little puppy. 

Teacher: Would some one like to ask Mary a question about 
Radio? 

Pupil: Has Radio any tricks? (This question was undoubtedly 
suggested by the teacher’s reference to the trick performed by her 
dog. Incidentally, this was the teacher’s motive in making the 
reference.) 

Mary: He hides when he has been naughty. 

Pupil: Where does he hide? 

Mary: He hides behind the phonograph. 

Teacher: What naughty thing does Radio do? (The teacher 
resumes the questioning in order to recall the attention of the class 
to the trick phase of the story.) 

Mary: Sometimes he chews Father’s slipper. 

Teacher: Radio must be a very cunning little puppy. If you 
put together what you have told us about Radio’s trick, it will make 
a story. (To the entire class:) How many of you would like to 
hear the story ? 

(The class indicates its wishes, and the teacher proceeds.) 

Teacher: Suppose you tell us who Radio is, what naughty thing 
he sometimes does, and what happens then. 

(After Mary has thought for a moment, she tells the following 
story :) 

Mary: Radio is our little puppy. Sometimes he chews Father’s 
slipper. Then he runs away and hides. 

Teacher: Mary has told us a little story about her dog. It is 
good enough to be written on the blackboard. Then we will all 
read it. 

(The teacher writes the story on the blackboard, perhaps remark- 
ing as she begins each sentence, ‘“‘I shall begin this sentence with a 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 19 


capital letter.” As she makes the period at the close of each sen- 
tence, she says, “‘ This dot shows that this is the end of the sentence.” 
The class reads the story and the lesson continues.) 

Teacher: Has any one a kitten for a pet? (Some one is sure to 
respond to this question, and the teacher continues.) Tom, what 
does your kitten like to do? 

Tom: She likes to play with a spool of thread. 

Teacher: Please tell your story so that it will show who 
**she”’ is. 

Tom: (After further questioning, if necessary.) My kitten likes 
to play with a spool of thread. 

Teacher: What sometimes happens to the thread ? 

Tom: Sometimes the thread gets all snarled up. 

Teacher: 'Tom, you have told us two things about your kitten. 
Tell them once more. 

Tom: My kitten likes to play with a spool of thread. Sometimes 
the thread gets all snarled up. 

Teacher: How many of you think that Tom’s story is good enough 
to be put on the blackboard? (The children will certainly think so, 
and indicate the fact.) 

(The teacher writes the story on the blackboard, making the 
capitals and the periods very deliberately, or again directly calling 
attention to them. The children read the story. If there is time, 
several other stories may be developed in the same way.) 

Teacher: Now that we are going to be story-tellers, shall we have 
our stories written in a book? 

(The children invariably approve of this suggestion. After they 
decide that they cannot yet write well enough to make the book 
themselves, the teacher offers to write the stories, or, better still, 
suggests that a pupil in a higher grade would be very glad to write 
them. A messenger is sent to make the request, and brings back 
the answer. The teacher provides sheets of paper, and at some con- 
venient time the higher-grade pupil copies the stories. Incidentally 
the storybook motivates learning to write well so that the children 
can make their own books.) 


Lessons of the sort described may be continued for a num- 
ber of days, and after the work is well under way, it will 


proceed much more quickly than at first. 
When the book is finished, preferably when each child has 


20 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


contributed a story, the sheets will be fastened together, and 
the children will make some sort of cover for it, all making 
suggestions and agreeing upon the best one. If there is an 
art teacher, her codperation should be enlisted on request of 
the pupils themselves. The class will then decide how the 
book will be used. Some of the uses sure to be suggested 
are showing it to the principal, to the pupil who copied the 
stories, and to the parents at home; and lending it to other 
grades. The book should then be preserved for comparison 
with later stories. 

Simple as this kind of story-telling is, the lessons may not 
proceed smoothly. If they did, they would be unnecessary. 
The children will not always respond in sentences, and then 
additional questioning is necessary to secure the sentence 
form of reply. They will make errors that must be cor- 
rected, and possibly noted for special drill. Often they will 
join their sentences with the word and when giving the en- 
tire story. When this happens, it is usually sufficient at 
this stage to ask the story-teller to tell only one thing at a 
time, calling attention to the way the sentences were written 
on the blackboard. Implant the idea of expressing each 
thought separately. 

The function of the first story-telling. While the stories 
for the book were told by individual children about their 
pets, they were not, strictly speaking, original stories. Note 
that the teacher selected the subjects and drew out the con- 
tent of the stories by questions. The purpose of this kind of 
work is to launch the story-telling without hitches, and 
to produce stories at the outset that will be satisfactory. 
The power to tell stories in this way gives the children con- 
fidence in themselves, and incidentally they are setting up 
standards that will be of great help when they begin to tell 
genuinely original stories. They also unconsciously imbibe 
the single-phase idea, thus getting their first lesson in this 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION Q1 


important matter, and they have practice in expressing each 
thought in its own sentence. 

By-products of the story-telling. Making the storybook 
will motivate some valuable lessons in good manners. Often 
children themselves suggest that they thank the pupil who 
copied the stories and the art teacher who helped make the 
cover for the book. When this does not happen, a hint from 
the teacher is usually sufficient to precipitate a discussion on 
how the thanks shall be conveyed. If sending notes is sug- 
gested, all may help plan them. The teacher may write 
them if at the time no pupil is able to copy them from the 
blackboard. 

See “ Written Language ”’ for further suggestions on the 
note writing. 

The second step in story-telling. The class story repre- 
sents a step in advance. A common interest is selected for 
the subject, and the children pool their ideas and decide for 
themselves what shall be put into the story. This exercise 
builds on the foundation laid by the story lesson already 
described, and at the same time prepares for the following 
step — original story-telling by individual children. 

The class story shows the children how to handle their 
material, and is particularly helpful to the unimaginative and 
unresponsive children who need special training before enter- 
ing upon their independent story-telling careers. 

A picture provides good material for the first class story. 
It was formerly the custom to use in this picture work repro- 
ductions of masterpieces, but teachers have long since dis- 
covered that for the special purpose of story-telling in the 
lowest grades, more modern pictures of familiar child or 
animal activities are better, because they can be interpreted 
in the light of the children’s own experience. 

A suitable picture at this stage is one that depicts a single 
interesting episode and contains little distracting detail. If 


22 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


it is colored, so much the better. Suitable pictures may 
sometimes be found on the covers of children’s magazines 
and in the better type of picture book. With the children’s 
help, every school should collect a stock of these pictures. 

If possible, the picture should be large enough to be easily 
seen by all when displayed before the class. If a smaller 
one is necessarily used, it should be passed around and time 
enough allowed each child or small group of children to enable 
them to grasp the story of the picture and to hold in mind 
the essential details. 


A TYPICAL PICTURE LESSON 


Let us imagine that the picture on the opposite page is 
to be used. 

Aims. The aims of the teacher are to help the children to 
realize that a picture tells a story, and to train them to read 
the story and tell it in words. 

The pupils’ aim is to learn to tell the story well so that they 
can tell it in an interesting way at home. 

The teacher’s preparation. The teacher should know the 
picture so well that she can ask questions without constantly 
turning to look at it. She should plan carefully the questions 
she will ask, and anticipate the answers they may elicit. 
She will then be ready for the bypaths into which the dis- 
cussion may be led, and will not be disturbed by interrup- 
tion of her carefully laid plan. She must be ready tactfully 
to cut short all side excursions that lead away from the goal, 
while utilizing any unexpected suggestion that is pertinent. 
In other words, she makes a lesson plan, not for the purpose of 
imposing it upon the class, but to acquire skill in holding the 
pupils to their purpose and in encouraging them to do for 
themselves all that they possibly can. 

The lesson might proceed somewhat as follows, after the 
children have examined the picture to their hearts’ content. 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 23 





24 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Note that the teacher does not begin the actual story-telling 
in the first lesson. The preliminary discussion will help the 
class to read the picture and to get into sympathy with the 
story it tells. When they have had some experience in 
reading pictures, the children themselves can help ask the 
questions. 


Teacher: This picture was made by an artist. He had a story to 
tell you, but instead of telling it in words, as I tell you stories, he 
told it in a picture. Let us read the picture and find out what the 
story is. Then we will tell it in words, and you will be ready to tell 
it at home. How many of you like the picture? 

(The children manifest their approval in characteristic ways, and 
the lesson proceeds.) 

Teacher: A story always tells about somebody or something. 
What is this story about ? 

Pupil: About a boy and girl. 

Teacher: Please tell your whole thought. Begin “‘ The story is 
about —” 

Pupil: The story is about a boy and a girl. 

Pupil: It is about a dog, too. 

Teacher: Yes, it tells about three little playmates. Let us give 
them names. 

(After a good many suggestions are made, the class agrees upon 
these names: Fannie, Dick, and Spot.) 

Teacher: What are the children playing ? 

Pupil: They are playing ball. 

Teacher: Who threw the ball? 

Pupil: Fannie threw the ball. 

Pupil: Dick threw it. 

Teacher: How many of you think Dick threw it? (Many hands 
are raised.) How do you know? 

Pupil: His hands show it. 

Pupil: He looks like a pitcher. 

Pupil: That’s the way I throw a ball. 

Teacher: (Passing a ball, or something to represent one, to the 
last speaker.) Throw this ball and we will all notice if your hands 
look like Dick’s. 

(The pupil throws the ball, and the point is settled.) 

Teacher: How does Fannie show that Dick threw the ball ? 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 25 


Pupil: She is going to catch it. 

Pupil: Her hands is held to catch it. 

Teacher: It is better to say “Her hands are held to catch it.” 
(The teacher makes a mental note of the error and later gives an 7s 
and are drill.) 

Pupil: Her hands are held to catch it. 

Pupil: She couldn’t throw a ball that way. 

Teacher: No, Fannie was ready to catch the ball. Did she catch 
it? 

Pupil: (Laughing.) No, Miss Adams, Spot caught it. 

Teacher: Do you think the children wanted Spot to play? (Some 
nod, and others dissent.) 

Pupil: I think Fannie wanted him to play. 

Teacher: Why do you think so? 

Pupil: Because she is laughing. 

Teacher: It is not a good plan to begin a sentence with because. 
Try to tell what you think in one sentence. 

Pupil: I think Fannie wanted him to play because she is laugh- 
ing. 

Teacher: Good! That is what I think. What about Dick? 

Pupil: Dick looks cross. 

Pupil: Dick is mad. 

Teacher: It is better to say, ‘‘ Dick is angry.” 

Pupil: Dick is angry. 

Pupil: I don’t think Dick is angry. He’s just — 

Teacher: Disappointed. Is that the word you are trying to 
think of ? 

Pupil: Yes, Miss Adams. I think Dick is disappointed. 

Teacher: I think so, too. Perhaps when he sees how Fannie and 
Spot enjoy the fun, he will enjoy it, too. The picture does not tell 
the end of the story, but we can finish it to suit ourselves. What do 
you think Spot will do with the ball ? 

Pupil: He will run away with it. 

Pupil: He will giveit to Fannie. (The children’s faces show that 
this suggestion is unpopular, and it is therefore dropped.) 

Teacher: Let us imagine that he runs away with it. What will 
happen then? ne 

Pupil: They will chase him. 

Teacher: Who will chase him ? 

Pupil: The children will chase him. 

Teacher: Who will tell it in a different way ? 


26 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Pupil: Dick and Fannie will chase him. 

Pupil: They will all have a race. 

Teacher: Yes, I am sure that they will have a race. And now 
that we have read the picture story, we can tell it in words in our 
next lesson. We will leave the picture where you can see it. 


TELLING THE STORY 


Teacher: Today we are going to tell in words the story that the 
artist told in a picture. How many remember the story that we 
found in the picture ? 

(The children indicate that they remember the story.) 

Teacher: Very well, then we will begin at once to tell the story. 
I will write it on the blackboard as you tell it. What shall you tell 
first ? 

Pupil: One day some children were playing ball. 

Pupil: Dick threw a ball to Fannie. 

Pupil: Spot wanted to play with Dick and Fannie. 

Pupil: One day Dick and Fannie were playing ball. 

Teacher: Which sentence shall we take? 

(After some discussion, the last is chosen, and the teacher writes 
it on the blackboard.) 

Teacher: What shall we tell next ? 

(After other suggestions not as good are rejected by the class.) 

Pupil: Spot wanted to play with them. 

(This sentence is accepted, and then the rest of the story is built 
up and written on the blackboard.) 


One day Dick and Fannie were playing ball. 
Spot wanted to play with them. 

He caught the ball and ran away with it. 
Dick was disappointed, but Fannie was glad. 
Then they all had a race. 


The story is now read aloud several times, and the chil- 
dren agree to tell it at home that evening. 

Class stories will naturally be longer than the individual 
original stories discussed in the following section. This is 
but natural, and it is desirable. The teacher should refrain 
from putting her own ideas into the story. Try to get the 
best story that the children can produce without undue help, 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION Q7 


and be satisfied with that. The pupils will improve, not by 
having their work done for them, but by well-directed prac- 
tice. Keep the self-help aim always in sight. 

Suggestions and cautions. Teachers sometimes begin a 
picture lesson with a direction to the children to tell all they 
see in the picture, and the children name everything por- 
trayed. Note that in the lessons given, the teacher leads 
the pupils to talk only of those things that are concerned with 
the story the picture tells. Her questions lead them to think 
of the happenings in an orderly way. This is a good way to 
train children to read a picture. When they tell original 
stories later, they will be able to arrange the facts in their 
natural order. | 

Study the lesson with a view to seeing how much about 
story-telling was included, and how naturally the children 
responded to the teaching. Consider the purpose of the 
teacher’s introduction; the incidental way in which she 
corrected mistakes; how she secured sentence responses ; 
the orderliness of the questioning; how vocabulary growth 
was provided for; and how at the last the children were led 
to make some use of the story. 

Finally, note that the story might have been improved 
by continued questioning. That this was not attempted 
is an indication of the teacher’s wisdom. Her aim having 
been achieved, she did not spoil the lesson by attempting too 
much. 

A look ahead. Pictures form but one source of material 
for class stories. Class experiences of all sorts may be used 
— games played at recess, visits to places in the neighbor- 
hood, the constructive activities of the class, short stories 
read, and the like. In dealing with material that is familiar 
to all the members of the class, it is wise to motivate the 
story-telling by preparing it for some other audience, as in 
the type lesson. 


28 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


TELLING ORIGINAL STORIES 


Introduction. When the children have gained some skill 
in telling stories of the two types already considered, they will 
_be ready to tell original stories. This marks a significant 
step in advance, because the children must now decide what 
to tell about, select the material for the story, and arrange 
the material in the best way without the help of the teacher. 
Motivating the story-telling. All children like stories, 
and the teacher can easily lead the pupils to see how interest- 
ing it will be to listen to stories that nobody has heard before. 
Each child becomes a story-teller in turn, keeping his story a 
secret until the time comes to tell it to the class. In order 
that a large number may be told during a class period, the 
stories should be short, and in order that all may enjoy 
them, they must be told so that all can hear them easily. 
Choosing subjects. There will always be children who 
think they have no interesting experiences to relate. Such 
children must be helped to see how much is happening all the 
time that is worth talking about. A second-grade boy once 
said that he had no story to tell. It happened that on the 
preceding day the teacher had passed the boy’s house and 
had seen his little brother riding a goat. She asked him if 
he had ever ridden the goat, and when he admitted that he 
had done so, she suggested that he tell about the best ride he 
ever had. He recalled that he had once been thrown off the 
goat’s back, and immediately produced an interesting story. 
The children should be encouraged to tell about things 
\, they see on the way home from school, at market, or in other 
places; good times they have had, surprises that have fallen 
to their lot, and so on. After their eyes have been opened, 
they will be astonished to find what an interesting place this 
old world of oursis. Knowledge of the home conditions of her 
pupils gives a teacher an advantage that helps in many ways. 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 29 


Framing titles is not an easy matter, and it seems wise in 
these earliest grades either to have the stories given without 
titles or to require simple statements, such as, “‘ I am going 
to tell about the dime I lost.”” These statements later make 
the best approach to real titles. “‘ The Dime I Lost ” may\, 
be lifted bodily from the sentence. 

Telling the stories. In all story-telling lessons, each 
child should realize that he will be busy every minute either 
as a story-teller or as a listener. It is a good plan to have 
the story-teller stand where all can see him. However, if a 
child is at first too diffident to be conspicuous and interest- 
ing at the same time, his temperament should be considered. 
Ordinarily there will be few of these children in a class after 
the kind of work already discussed has been carried on for 
several months. One little second-grade girl who lost her 
head under the eyes of her classmates, was allowed for a day 
or two to stand beside her desk, although some of the pupils 
could not see her. Then one day the teacher, who was at 
the side-front of the room, asked her to come to her. With 
the teacher’s arm around her waist, she told her story. The 
next day she again stood at the teacher’s side, but without 
the sheltering arm about her. Scarcely had her story begun 
when the teacher found it necessary — for the child’s mental, 
not physical, good — to close a window. She rose quietly, 
closed the window, and then remained where she was until 
the story was finished. After that the child no longer feared 
the eyes of her audience. 

Criticizing the stories. Teacher and pupils will together 
be the critics, the teacher’s participation being limited to doing 
only what the children cannot do for themselves. From the 
outset the criticism should concern only a few features. At 
the start it is enough to answer the following questions about 
every story told: 

Was the story interesting ? 


30 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Did the story-teller stand well and speak distinctly ? 

The criticism should be addressed to the story-teller 
directly. A critic might say, for instance, after some train- 
ing, “‘ I think your story was very interesting. I could hear 
every word you said.” Or, after a story in which a boy 
merely referred to a picnic, “I wish you had told us what 
happened at the picnic.” Or, “ I could not hear all that you 
said.” 

Of course there will be errors that the pupils do not notice, 
although after they have been drilled on a certain form, — 
isn’t for example,— some children will quickly note the 
incorrect form and will refer to it when criticizing. 

In whatever way a child tells his story, he should not be 
interrupted during the telling. It is a question whether 
every error should be corrected by the teacher. Certainly 
those that have been selected for correction in the grade 
should not be overlooked, and may be corrected after the 
story is finished. An occasional error that is not generally 
made in the class may well be disregarded for the time being 
unless it is flagrant. Some matters correct themselves as 
time goes on. Other errors may be so general that the 
teacher feels that the entire class should be drilled on the 
correct forms. She makes a mental note of these and plans 
games or other exercises that will give the desired drill. 
The drill should be given in a period set apart for corrective 
work, and not during the story-telling period. 

Sample stories. It is not a part of the purpose of this 
book to set up standards, partly because standards must be 
tentative, but more particularly to save space, and because 
there are on the market several books giving standard com- 
positions in considerable numbers. No primary teacher 
can afford to be without one of these books. A few of the 
best are listed at the end of this chapter. 

The compositions that follow are original stories told by 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 31 


first- and second-grade children. They are introduced here 
to serve as texts for some remarks that follow them. 


FIRST-GRADE STORIES 


1. Our baby is very fat. Father says she waddles like a duck. 
We all love her. Our baby is a girl. 

2. Yesterday I fell into the brook. I got all wet. Mother 
spanked me and put me to bed. 

3. A bird lives in our cherry tree. He wakes me up every morn- 
ing. He is a robin. 

4. Father made me a doll house. It has fourrooms. One of 
them is Dolly’s bedroom. I always put her to bed and say ‘‘Good 
night, dear.” It seems as if I could hear her say “Good night, 
Mother.” 


SECOND-GRADE STORIES 


5. The night before Christmas I hung up my stocking. Santa 
Claus came when I was asleep. He stuffed my stocking with pres- 
ents. I hope some one filled his stocking. 

6. My big doll’s name is Betsy. I love Betsy, but she is a lot of 
trouble. I have to feed her and wash her face. At night I sing her 
to sleep. 

7. When I am a man I am going to be a policeman. I shall 
whistle for the automobiles to start. The drivers had better look 
out for me. I think I shall be a mounted policeman. 

8. Once a week I have to weed the onion bed. I put the weeds 
in a pile. When they are dry I burn them. I pull out some of the 
weeds with my fingers. The rest I hoe out. 


All these stories may well be considered satisfactory for 
the grades in which they were told. No. 4 is far above the 
average first-grade original composition, but the type of 
ability it represents is sometimes developed in an exception- 
ally gifted child. 

Stories 2, 4, 5, and 6 are simple and direct. Each of the 
other stories has a defect which may be pointed out here, 
although the teacher might not call attention to it in the early 
stages of original story-telling. The use of the pronoun she 


32 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


in the second sentence of No. 1 makes it unnecessary to state 
that the baby is a girl. If the word robin had been used 
instead of bird in the first sentence of No. 3, the last sentence 
would have been unnecessary. In No. 7, the boy’s ambition 
to be a mounted policeman might better have been stated in 
the first sentence. No. 8 does not tell facts in their right 
order. 

It is a question to what extent these matters should be 
criticized at all in the first and second grades. They should 
certainly be disregarded until the pupils have gained skill in 
thinking out a story and telling it in sentences. If a child 
talks with ease in short, clear sentences, it will do no harm to 
call attention to defects of the sort described. The needs 
of the individual must be considered. No child must be dis- 
couraged by criticism for which he is not ready. 

But while adverse criticism must be given with wise re- 
straint, the meting out of merited praise needs no restric- 
tion. Praise, however, must be specific if it is to stimulate 
further growth in the individual, and incidentally to help the 
class as a whole. To say that a story is good amounts to 
little. The child must know why the story is good. After 
No. 4 had been told, for instance, a teacher might say, “ Tell- 
ing us what you thought your dolly said made your story 
very interesting, Mary.” Or, after No. 5 she might say, 
“IT am glad you thought of Santa’s stocking as well as your 
own.” These criticisms direct attention to the imaginative 
element that makes these stories superior to the others. Par- 
ticularly important is it to praise the child who shows im- 
provement, even though his story still has various defects. 
It may often happen that this child has done more genuine 
work than the more gifted pupil who tells a much better 
story. 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 33 


WRITTEN LANGUAGE 


A new way of expressing thought. Oral and written lan- 
guage are but two different ways of expressing thought, but 
they are not equally simple ways. Ever since his earliest 
babyhood, a child has been expressing himself in ways that 
have become second nature. Actions of various sorts, play, 
speech, constructive work of many kinds — these are his 
natural modes of expression. Writing, on the other hand, 
is for him a highly artificial activity, and because it involves 
the mastery of a new set of symbols, it should be carefully 
prepared for and should be motivated at every step. 

The starting point. Since a child can read before he begins 
to write, he already knows that thoughts may be expressed 
by printed symbols as well as by spoken words. In order 
to establish the closest possible relation between the book 
method of expressing thoughts and his own earliest efforts 
to use written symbols, it is a good plan to use cardboard 
letters as the introductory step to learning to write. 

At first very short and simple sentences may be built, 
copying from the blackboard matter that has been evolved 
in oral language lessons. Ask the children if they would not 
like to have on their desks the stories made from the same 
kind of letters as are used in their books. The children’s 
attitude toward the work will depend almost altogether upon 
the teacher’s suggestion. If she introduces the exercise as 
something that is hard and that must on no account fail to 
be perfect, the children will regard it as an unwelcome job. 
If the teacher suggests by word and manner that there is 
fun ahead, the pupils will bring to the task the zest with 
which they attack a dissected puzzle. When the words have 
been built, the children will greatly enjoy changing seats and 
trying to discover errors in the words on the desks before them. 
A simple plan of giving each child a token of some sort for 


34 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


every mistake he finds, and depriving him of one for every error 
of his own that is discovered, makes a game of the lesson. 

The attention of the pupils having frequently been directed 
to the capital letter at the beginning of a sentence and the 
period at the end, there should be little difficulty in building 
the sentences correctly. Some children, however, become so 
absorbed in the proper arrangement of the letters that other 
matters are overlooked. This being the case, the pupil 
should be asked if he has remembered to make it very plain 
where the sentence begins and ends. Later the children 
should find their own mistakes. A mere hint to look care- 
fully at the model will serve to put them on the scent of an 
error. 

Work like that suggested is in many schools considered 
busy work; that is, it is work done by the pupils while the 
teacher is otherwise occupied. This is one of the gravest 
mistakes of the primary school. First steps in all lines of 
work should be closely supervised in order to avoid the for- 
mation of careless habits. The teacher should pass up and 
down the aisles, making sure that the children are working 
carefully, giving suggestion and help when needed, and striv- 
ing always to prevent mistakes rather than to correct them. If 
the teacher keeps her requirements well within the ability 
of the class, infuses interest and enthusiasm by having simple 
speed contests, commends good work heartily, and kindly 
but firmly insists on real effort, she will lay the foundation 
of valuable habits. If she does not succeed in making the 
children take the work seriously as well as happily, she will 
intrench habits the reverse of valuable. 

First steps in writing. It is very important that all written 
work be motivated, but this does not imply that all writing 
must be concerned with expressing thoughts in sentences. 
The first-grade child who is being taught to make large letters 
with a free movement and gradually to reduce the size of the 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 35 


letters, may well begin with exercises requiring the writing 
of single words. 

The first lessons will be copying, and at this point great 
care must be exercised to prevent copying letter by letter. 
This habit, easily formed, works havoc difficult to repair. 
The words should in all cases be familiar ones, and close 
attention to the form of the word should be secured. If 
pupils have difficulty in remembering the word as a whole 
from this visual image, it is evident that much practice in 
visualization is needed. ‘The teacher may write words on the 
blackboard very deliberately, the children following closely, 
and then the word may be erased, while the children try to 
write it from memory, also on the blackboard. After be- 
ginning to write a word from a blackboard model, a pupil 
should not again look at the model until he compares his 
own finished work with it. If a word is to be written several 
times for the sake of drill, train the pupil to look at the 
blackboard model before writing each word, and not at a 
word previously written by himself. 

Motivating the writing of single words. Here are some 
suggestions for motivating exercises requiring the writing of 
single words: 

1. The teacher writes on the blackboard a list of words that have 
been used for pronunciation drills, and tells the children that she 
wishes to have a new kind of lesson on these words. For this pur- 
pose she needs slips of paper on which the words are written, and she 
asks the pupils to help her by writing the words. Children invaria- 
bly respond graciously to a request for help from the teacher, and 
they are quite ready to do their part in preparing for the new kind of 
lesson. The teacher assigns one word to each pupil, and asks him 
to practice writing it until he can write it very clearly, as the papers 
she wishes must be easily read. This motivates practice, and as 
each child succeeds in producing a word that is easily readable, the 
teacher gives him one of the uniform slips of paper she has prepared. 
When the words are all written, each pupil pronounces his own, and 
then passes it to his nearest neighbor. The words are pronounced 


36 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


once more, and again passed on. This continues until each word 
returns to the writer. The slips may be saved and used several 
times, thus convincing the pupils that they performed a useful 
service in writing them. At the same time the class has had 
good writing practice and good drill in pronunciation. 

2. The teacher may prepare a large fishpond by making a circle 
on the blackboard or on a large sheet of paper. Each child puts one 
fish into the pond, after practicing as before. The children will 
then angle for the prey, a fish being caught when it is touched with 
the pointer and the word correctly pronounced. 

3. A large ladder may be drawn on a sheet of paper, each child, 
after careful practice, writing one word on the ladder. This ladder 
will serve for rapid pronunciation drill. The blackboard may 
be used for this drill at times, but there should be some practice with 
paper and pencil. 

4. The children may write labels for the boxes in which materials 
are kept. At other times they may write the names of common 
things in the classroom. ‘The slips will be distributed, and each 
child attaches the one he receives to the object it names. 

5. The first-grade child should also learn to write his name, his 
father’s name, and his address, using capitals correctly. This is to 
all intents and purposes single-word writing, and may easily be 
motivated. 


Copying sentences. Sentence writing should also begin 
with copying in order to develop the written work step by 
step, each step taking the pupil a little in advance of the pre- 
ceding one. This work may be motivated in much the same 
way as the writing of single words. It should be prepared 
for with similar drill, except that now a thought is to be 
expressed in several words, and each word must be mastered 
as to form before the children begin to write. The use of the 
capital and period should be emphasized as in sentence build- 
ing with letter cards. Here are some simple exercises : 

1. Let us imagine that the teacher has on the blackboard some 
simple sentences containing the word does that have been used in a 
good-usage drill. Before erasing the sentences to use the black- 


board space otherwise, she asks the children to write the sen- 
tences on paper so that they may still be used. After practice 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 37 


designed to secure accuracy and legibility, each child writes one of 
the sentences on a slip of paper. This results in several copies of 
each sentence. After they have been corrected, the slips are col- 
lected, to be redistributed during the next drill period. The slips 
may be used for several days. 

2. 'The question form of sentence will have become familiar to the 
pupils from its constant use in all sorts of lessons. Call attention to 
the question mark in readers, and have it found in a large number 
of places. Give practice in making it, and then play this game: 

Each child has a slip of paper on which he draws crudely the pic- 
ture of a simple object whose name he knows. ‘The picture may be 
wholly original or it may be copied from line drawings in some book. 
Under the picture, the artist writes, copying from the blackboard, 

What is this? 


The papers are then exchanged, and under the question each pupil 
writes the answer; as, for instance, 


This is a chair. 


It is understood beforehand that no question is to be answered if 
the question mark is omitted. In that case the paper goes back to 
the writer to be corrected before the game can proceed. Another 
rule is that, no matter how crude the drawing, the child receiving it 
must decide what it represents and write the answer. It is also 
understood that a pupil may ask the teacher for the spelling of any 
word, although only objects whose names are familiar to the class 
should be drawn. 

3. Another sentence game utilizes pictures. A certain picture 
in a reader or other book is selected; the children talk about the 
picture, and the teacher writes on the blackboard any words that 
the children may not be able to spell. Each child then writes a 
question about the picture. When the sentences have been cor- 
rected by the writers, they are exchanged and each pupil writes the 
answer to the one he receives. ‘The papers then go back to those 
who wrote the questions. ‘These children decide whether or not the 
question was corréctly answered. At the last, the papers will again 
be exchanged to serve for a simple reading lesson. Each child reads 
aloud the question and the answer on his paper. 


Writing notes. Asarule, note writing would not be begun 
before the second grade. If at the end of the first year a 
child can write the word and the simple one-sentence exercises 


38 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


suggested, he is probably doing all that should be required of 
him. Inno other line of work is the injunction “ Make haste 
slowly ”’ so necessary. 

Notes are suggested for the first written work demanding 
several sentences, because the form is simple and the notes 
may be motivated by a real need. Take, for instance, the 
storybook project discussed on page 13. It involves thank- 
ing several persons who helped. It was suggested that the 
children compose the note and the teacher write it. In the 
second grade, the children can do it all. If they wish aid in 
making covers for a book, for instance, they will naturally 
turn to the drawing teacher. The class decide what they 
wish to say, and build the note just as they did the class 
stories, the teacher writing it on the blackboard as the sen- 
tences are given. Here is a note of this sort written by 
second-grade children : 


Dear Miss White, 
We are going to make a picture book for Christmas. Will you 
please help us make a pretty cover for it? 


The unsigned model is copied by all, under the close super- 
vision of the teacher, and a note that is neat, well placed, 
and without mistakes is selected to send to Miss White. 
The child who wrote the winning note signs his name and 
grade, the teacher adding them to the blackboard model. 
Writing original stories. The next step in advance in the 
second grade is the writing of original stories. It is a good 
plan to begin with very short stories previously told as an 
oral exercise. The problem is then simply that of telling the 
story in another way. These early written stories may be 
motivated by the desire to take them home. Like the notes, 
they should be written under the supervision of the teacher, 
and the pupils should be trained never to write a word unless 
they are sure of its spelling. The teacher will write on the 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 39 


blackboard, or on a small piece of paper kept on the pupil’s 
desk for the purpose, any word that is called for. 

Both because writing stories is one of the least important 
activities of the second grade, and because it may so easily 
lead to habits that in later years will be difficult to overcome, 
it is wise strictly to limit the type of story the children are 
asked to write. A story that can be told in two short sen- 
tences, or at the most in three, is all that the average second- 
grade child should attempt. Indeed, many good teachers 
limit the story writing to the copying of stories worked out in 
class. This gives the teacher the opportunity to select for 
copying only those that are suitable. 

A very successful teacher uses the following method: She 
selects a simple picture and writes on the blackboard three 
simple questions whose answers make a little story. The 
answers called for are as simple as the questions, but they all 
help each other tell the story. The point is to avoid estab- 
lishing bad habits, while at the same time gratifying the 
child’s natural ambition to write. 

The importance of good models of written work. It is an 
excellent plan for the teacher also to write the early lessons in 
order to provide a copy that can be hung up in the room as a 
stimulus to the class. Very soon, however, the work of the 
pupils themselves should be used for the purpose, several of 
the best papers being hung up after every written lesson. 
Train the children to look carefully at these papers before 
beginning to write, and then strive to have their own work so 
good that it will be selected as a model. As the children 
improve, the models naturally become more creditable. The 
class should understand that a paper that serves as a model 
one month may not be worthy of the honor a month later. 


STUDY OF A CHILD’S COMPOSITION 


The following composition was written by a second-grade 
pupil, the teacher helping only with the spelling. 


40 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


My Sprina VAcATION 


During my spring vacation I went to my fathers farm and saw 
the cowbirds following the cows. The next day I went horseback 
riding with my father. then we came back and had our lunch and 
after lunch Miss Prince came Miss Prince was mothers nurse when 
she was sick we talked about the trip then went home we had supper 
then retired. 


The first and second sentences of this composition indicate 
that the writer had a good command of sentence form. 
There can be little doubt that the sudden transition to the 
run-on form was directly due to confused thinking. Clear- 
cut thoughts are expressed in the first two sentences, but 
the writer was then evidently swept away by the memory of a 
torrent of trivial happenings, and in attempting to narrate 
them lost all sense of clear expression. Here are some cau- 
tions suggested by this composition : 


1. Avoid giving children impossible subjects for short composi- 
tions. Keep always in mind the one-phase idea, and make sure that 
the pupils also have it in mind. Nothing will help more than care- 
fully worked-out class compositions on suitable subjects, and con- 
stant criticism of compositions that attempt to cover too much 
ground. Children are easily trained to see that one vacation hap- 
pening is all that can be handled in a short story. 

2. Have the compositions kept short. The limiting of the sub- 
ject helps directly to produce this result, but even with a sufficiently 
narrow subject some children will ramble more or less. Keep them 
to the subject. 

3. Remember that even ability of a high order may break down 
under impossible conditions. Do not feel that because a pupil is 
above the average he may safely overstep all restrictions. The com- 
position under consideration shows what may easily happen under 
the circumstances. | 

4. Hold always before yourself as an aim the development of 
clear-thinking habits. Train the children to put into words one 
thought at a time, and not to begin to write until they have clearly 
in mind the entire sentence in which the thought is to be expressed. 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 41 


OTHER PHASES OF LANGUAGE WORK 


There are other phases of language work relating to ex- 
pression in words that might properly be discussed here. 
But because it does not seem necessary to treat them sepa- 
rately for each of the grade groups, they are considered at 
some length in other chapters. The Index will help you 
quickly to find what you need. Consult it for these topics: 
dramatization, reproduction, vocabulary growth, correct 
usage, tests, and measurements. You will find references to 
pages where you may get some help for your grade work, even 
though the topics are developed to meet the needs of higher- 
grade teachers also. Knowing the powers of your pupils as 
well as their needs, you can easily select what promises to 
further their growth in language power. Give special atten- 
tion to the four chapters following this one and to Chapter 
Ten. 


For THouGcut AND DIscussIoNn 


1. Having in mind every type of activity in which your pupils 
engage in school, which afford the richest opportunities for uncon- 
scious language training? If you have not fully utilized these 
opportunities, decide how you can at once begin to do so. 

2. List under the captions given below the opportunities your 
neighborhood affords for increasing language power by broadening 
the experience of your pupils: out-of-door excursions (for observing 
birds, trees, flowers, gardens, the work of running water, the work 
of frost, building operations, and so on); visits to stores, museums, 
or factories; keeping growing plants in the schoolroom; studying 
animal life (the larger animals out of school, and the smaller pets 
in school). Select the one that will be most helpful in connection 
with some project you have on hand, and plan accordingly. 

3. What English evils other than carelessness may result from 
unsupervised written work ? 

4. Story-telling by the teacher has not been considered in this 
chapter, but it is very important. What language advantages may 
accrue to your pupils from hearing good stories told? The term 
good as applied to a story refers to its suitability for the grade as well 


42 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


as to its general qualities. Plan to improve as a story-teller by 
getting help from books written by experienced story-tellers and 
also by practice. 


For READING AND STUDY 
STANDARDS AND METHODS 


Manoney. Standards in English. World Book Company. 

Savitz, Batres, AND Starry. Composition Standards. Hinds, 
Hayden & Eldridge, Inc. 

SHERIDAN. Speaking and Writing English. Benjamin H. Sanborn 
& Co. 

(These three books contain large numbers of children’s composi- 
tions arranged by grade. Every grade teacher should have at 
hand one of these books for constant reference, and to supple- 
ment Self-Help Methods of Teaching English.) 

Younc-Memmott. Methods in Elementary English. D. Appleton 
& Co. 


PROJECTS 


Hostc-CHase. Brief Guide to the Project Method. World Book 
Company. (This book will prove invaluable to the teacher who 
wishes to vitalize her English work. It gives the theory of the 
project in a simple way, suggests projects, and tells how to carry 
them out.) 

Krackow1Tzer. Projects in Primary Grades. J. B. Lippincott 
Company. (This book is concrete and will prove very helpful.) 

Lronarp. English Composition as a Social Problem. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. (Study Chapter I of this book.) 

PickeTT-BorEen. Early Childhood Education. World Book Com- 
pany. (Good for the kindergarten and the first-grade teacher.) 

Elementary School Journal, 1923-1924. “‘Unified Kindergarten and 
First-Grade Teaching.” 

Journal of Educational Method. “The Clearing House.” World 
Book Company. (‘‘The Clearing House”’ deals regularly with 
projects and practical problems adapted to the various grades, 
work for the lowest grades being included.) 

Teachers College Record, 1919-1920. ‘‘Horace Mann Studies in 
Primary Education.”’ Teachers College, Columbia University. 


FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION 43 


Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 
Part I, Chapter II, “New Materials for the Primary Grades.”’ 
Public School Publishing Company. (The chapter referred to 
contains reports of projects carried out by young children, and 
is very suggestive.) 


THE ART OF STORY-TELLING 


Battery. For the Story-Teller. Milton Bradley Company. 

Bryant. How to Tell Stories to Children. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. 

Catumr. Educating by Story-Telling. World Book Company. 

Horne. Story-Telling, Questioning, and Study, Chapter I. The 
Macmillan Company. 

Keyes. Stories and Story-Telling. D. Appleton & Co. 

Wrcue. Some Great Stories and How to Tell Them. Newson & Co. 


STORIES TO TELL 


Most of the books in the preceding list contain stories, as well as 
suggestions for telling them. 


Battey-Lewis. For the Story Hour. Milton Bradley Company. 
Barnes. Types of Children’s Interature. World Book Company. 
Bryant. New Stories to Tell to Children. Houghton Mifflin Com- 


pany. 

Cor. The First Book of Stories for the Story-Teller. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. 

CooxEe. Nature Myths and Stories. A. Flanagan Company. 

Horsrook. The Book of Nature Myths. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. 

Lansina. Fairy Tales. Ginn & Co. 

Linpsay. Mother Stories. Milton Bradley Company. 

— More Mother Stories. Milton Bradley Company. 

Masir. Famous Stories Every Child Should Know. Doubleday, 
Page & Co. 

O’Grapy-Turoop. The Story-Teller’s Book. Rand McNally & Co. 

Poutsson. For the Children’s Hour. Milton Bradley Company. 

In the Child’s World. Milton Bradley Company. 

WetsH. Stories Children Love. Dodge Publishing Company. 

Wieein-SmitH. Tales of Laughter. Houghton Mifflin Company. 

— The Story Hour. Houghton Mifflin Company. 





CHAPTER THREE 


Tue TEACHER, THE TEXTBOOK, AND THE PUPIL 


INTRODUCTION 


The factors in the learning process. The teacher, the 
textbook, the pupil — and the greatest of these is the pupil. 
It is for him that society has erected and equipped school 
buildings, has provided teachers and textbooks, and has 
assumed the burden of taxation involved. The pupil is to 
be trained for citizenship, and one vital requirement is the 
correct and effective use of English in all the common situa- 
tions of life. The teacher and the textbook play important 
roles in this training process. Before beginning the study of 
methods in grades above the second, it is important, therefore, 
that the relation of the teacher and the textbook to the self- 
help process of learning by the pupil be clearly compre- 
hended. 

This chapter is devoted to the purpose of making clear 
this relation. It should frequently be reviewed, because it 
is impossible to repeat in subsequent chapters as often as is 
desirable the facts set forth. ‘These fundamental facts should 
be thoroughly ingrained in the teacher’s mind, as they will 
not only serve to stimulate her own creative teaching im- 
pulses, but will also explain the reasons for some methods 
suggested in later chapters. 


THE PUPIL 


The pupil as a self-active being. A true conception of the 
pupil and his powers is essential. No argument is necessary 
to prove that he is not raw material to be transformed into a 
more or less finished product. This is but saying in another 


way that the school is not a factory. 
Ad 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 45 


_ The pupil is a conscious, self-active being who is to grow 
through the voluntary exercise of his own powers, and not 
by drastic manipulation from without. The teacher and 
the textbook serve merely to help the pupil to direct his 
own activities as effectively as possible, and to make condi- 
tions as favorable as circumstances permit. 

The foundation already laid. It should be borne in mind 
that when the pupil has completed the second-grade work, 
he will have been in school at least two years; that he has had 
valuable social experience ; that his power to communicate by 
means of words has grown somewhat through all the activi- 
ties of the school and through simple lessons in composition ; 
that he has begun to work for definite purposes; and that 
he has learned to read, thus having gained some skill in inter- 
preting written symbols as well as spoken words. He is now 
ready to take a long step forward in the art of being his own 
teacher. 


THE TEACHER 


The functions of the teacher. What are the teacher’s 
functions in the pupil’s self-help learning process? They 
are many and varied, and she is in no danger of finding her- 
self displaced, or even rendered subordinate. The self-help 
type of learning by the pupil demands of the teacher the high- 
est degree of insight, sympathy, and skill. But no young 
teacher need feel discouraged if at first she is forced to rely 
somewhat fully upon the help of supervisors and books of 
method. If she takes up her task with appreciation of its 
significance, its complexity, and its boundless opportunity ; if 
she herself becomes a student, working for clear-cut aims and 
constantly growing power; and if she sets up standards of 
attainment by which she may constantly measure results, she 
will not only reach her goal, but she will hugely enjoy the 
path that leads to it. 


46 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Here are some of the important functions of the teacher: 


1. She must serve as a model in her English and also in her 
carriage, her manners, and all the other details that together make 
up personality. 

2. She must know as fully as possible the pupil’s native intelli- 
gence and his previous training. ‘This knowledge will enable her to 
adapt her requirement to the ability of the pupils. When desirable 
she may make several assignments, the minimum one attainable by 
the least able children in the class tf they make the necessary effort. 

3. She must help the pupils to set up aims. The self-help 
method of learning demands that a pupil always know what he is 
driving at. If he wishes to acquire the art of using convincing lan- 
guage, he must appreciate the importance of being able to convince 
others, and definitely aim to acquire the power. 

In Reveries of a Schoolmaster, Francis B. Pearson has an interesting 
chapter on “‘Targets.”” Among other illustrations he cites the way 
in which in his youth he saw a farmer make furrows with an old- 
fashioned plow. The old man placed stakes where the ends of the 
furrows were to be and tied white rags to the stakes. He then 
started across the field, keeping his eyes fixed on the white rag. ‘The 
furrow was straight as an arrow. 

The teacher must see that the pupil sets up an aim, and keeps his 
eye fixed on the target. This is purposeful activity. 

4. She must help the pupil to set up standards of attainment. 
His immediate needs demand that the standards be attainable with 
reasonable effort. ‘The use of the standards will be discussed in con- 
nection with written composition. 

5. She must help her pupils to cultivate right habits. Con- 
sciously or unconsciously, English habits are being formed all the 
time, bad as well as good, and both kinds are subject to the same 
inexorable laws. 

She must learn that talking about the formation of good English 
habits amounts to but little. The muscles of speech involved are 
deaf to this sort of appeal. They respond only to changed action so 
persistently enforced that the good habit displaces the poor one. 
This is true not only of English habits, but also of the concomitant 
habits of carelessness, indifference, forgetting assignments, and the 
entire flock of bad habits that tend at every step to defeat the ac- 
complishment of the teacher’s purpose. All these bad habits must 
be routed by the conscious substitution of the habits desired. 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 47 


6. She must be ready to give help whenever the pupil really 
needs it, but she must help in a way to develop the power of self- 
help. It is easy to follow the path of least resistance by telling the 
pupil what he does not know, but it is fatal to his growth. The 
teacher must do nothing for the pupil that he can be led to do for himself. 

7. She must often develop new topics, and thus break the way 
for more independent study by the pupil. 

8. She must test accomplishment and keep track of the results 
for purposes of comparison. 

9. She must expect growth, and watch for it. All pupils will 
not advance at the same pace, and this is not necessary. Steady 
improvement — slow it may be, but always manifest — is the test 
of satisfactory progress. If growth is not apparent, the teacher 
should find out what causes the difficulty, and help remove the 
stumbling block. 

10. She must arouse a sense of responsibility. Sooner or later 
the pupil must realize his true relation to his home, the school, and 
the outside community, and appreciate in some degree what respon- 
sibility that relation imposes upon him. English lessons offer unex- 
ampled opportunity for developing the right attitude. 

11. She must teach the pupils how to study. Methods for accom- 
plishing this result will appear throughout this book, and are discussed 
later in this chapter in relation to the teacher and the textbook. 


THE TEXTBOOK 


The importance of a textbook in English. It is sometimes 
urged that no textbook of English is necessary. It is a ques- 
tion if this would be true even under the most ideal condi- 
tions, because the textbook is an important element in the 
self-help learning process. The recent tendency to use a 
book even in the third grade marks a notable onward step. 

The pupil who enters the third grade has learned to read 
with some ease and comprehension, but his reading has been 
confined largely to stories. Stories appeal to his interest, and 
as a rule are easily understood. The only genuine difficulties 
encountered relate to the mechanics of reading. It happens, 
therefore, that when the pupil finds it necessary to read 
matter other than stories, he has trouble in interpreting it. 


48 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Fortunately the newer methods of teaching reading are 
already helping to overcome this condition. The pupil 
reads silently matter that requires thought, and then gives 
satisfactory evidence that he understands what he has read. 
Reading and interpreting the lessons in the language book 
and other textbooks gives added practice in the more reflec- 
tive type of reading. 

The functions of the language book in the self-help learn- 
ing process are outlined in the following section. Perhaps it 
goes without saying that they are based on the various text- 
books that meet modern demands. They apply, however, 
more or less completely to any textbook the teacher happens 
to be using. 


Functions of the language textbook. The principal func- 
tions of the language textbook are outlined below. 


1. That a child at each step of the educative process should 
apply all previously acquired power has become axiomatic. In 
accordance with this principle, his power to read should early be 
applied to the mastery of language as self-expression. Through the 
pupil’s constantly growing power to read understandingly, the lan- 
guage book becomes a helpful means of self-teaching. 

2. By means of its organization of subject matter, its emphasis 
on essentials, its abundant drill material, its suggestions for projects, 
its demand for periodical self-appraisement, its aid in setting up 
aims, its insistence on sincere, thorough work, and its require- 
ment that the English power gained must be applied at all times 
when language is used, the book becomes a teaching force scarcely 
less important than the teacher herself. 

3. The textbook makes it possible for a pupil to advance at his 
own pace, and to acquire the highest degree of English power of 
which he is capable without being held back by less gifted or less 
ambitious classmates. 

4. The textbook is not only a factor in teaching how to think, 
but it makes thought necessary. In the class development of a 
topic, the teacher asks an important question whose answer requires 
thought. Some pupils make the necessary effort, and frequently 
one of these conscientious pupils is called on for the answer, because 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 49 


the lesson must proceed. The lazy or the less gifted pupil conse- 
quently gets the answer ready made. 

In studying from the textbook this is not the case. The pupil 
must answer the questions asked at each stage of the development, 
since failure to do so would block progress. He is forced to think in 
spite of a possible disinclination to make the necessary exertion. He 
becomes self-reliant, instead of being constantly carried on the 
shoulders of his classmates. 

5. The textbook automatically reduces the size of the class. As 
time goes on, an increasing number of pupils will become able to 
prepare their work with the aid of the textbook alone. As they 
develop this power, they should be excused from class-development 
lessons, thus enabling the teacher to give more individual attention 
to the pupils who are less advanced. 

All teachers should make themselves familiar with the Dalton 
plan, not necessarily for the purpose of introducing it as a whole, but 
to take advantage of many of its methods for inculcating habits of in- 
dividual and group study. The plan promotes initiative, social codp- 
eration, and economy of time and effort through independent study. 

6. The textbook makes frequent reviews convenient, and invali- 
dates any excuse that might be offered for failure which review 
might have forestalled. 

7. The textbook becomes a valuable reference book. In time 
the pupil learns to use it in the most effective way — through the 
Index. He should be trained to consider the book a legitimate help 
at all times. Too many teachers treat all English exercises as tests. 
Instead of being tests, they should be regarded as opportunities for 
making headway by using every available help. ‘The closed book has 
had its day, and now the open book is coming into its own. The 
habit of referring to it is not likely to be overcultivated. 

8. The textbook makes it possible for the teacher to hold her 
pupils responsible for what has been taught. A pupil who is not 
only permitted to refer to his book for help, but actually encour- 
aged to do so, has little excuse for any failure that might be avoided 
by referring to the book. Take the matter of letter writing, for 
instance. The letter form is taught carefully, and yet in our schools 
a vast number of pupils never master it. Consider the result of 
impressing upon the children the fact that the book contains all 
necessary letter models, and that until the form is absolutely mas- 
tered, no letter is to be handed in unless it has been compared with 
the model in the book. Only letters perfect in form will be accepted. 


50 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


9. The textbook is the teacher’s ally. It shares with her the 
teaching responsibility. Note that some of its functions cannot 
possibly be performed by the teacher, even had she unlimited time, 
strength, and ability. Other functions she shares with the book, 
and both book and teacher become more effective because of the 
partnership. 

10. The textbook helps teach the pupils how to study. How 
pupil, teacher, and book share in this work is outlined in the follow- 
ing section. 

LEARNING TO STUDY 


WHAT STUDY IS 


This section is designed to give some hints as to the way in 
which teacher and textbook together train the pupil how to 
study. Study is the only path that leads from a recognized 
problem to its correct solution. It is therefore of supreme im- 
portance that the pupil learn to follow the path to the goal. 

Briefly stated, Study vs the mental process, or series of pro- 
cesses, by means of which the mind overcomes obstacles encoun- 
tered in seeking to carry out a clearly defined purpose. The search 
for the means of surmounting the obstacle requires thought. 
If there is no obstacle, no thought is required, and there is 
consequently no occasion for study. Study is mental work. 


SOME ILLUSTRATIONS OF STUDY 


How a farmer studied. Perhaps a few simple illustrations 
of study processes will help at this point. Take, for instance, 
the case of the farmer referred to on page 46. 

The farmer had a purpose — to make a straight furrow. 
In seeking to accomplish his purpose with no aid except such 
skill as he had acquired through practice, he had encountered 
an obstacle. He could not make a straight furrow. Study 
was therefore necessary. | 

Possibly the farmer tried other ways than the one finally 
adopted. However that may be, eventually he must have 
reasoned something like this: If I am to make a good furrow, 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 51 


the ends must be opposite each other, and the furrow must 
follow a straight line between the ends. Perhaps if I mark 
the ends of the furrows, that will help me to plow straight. 

Having made his plan, the farmer put up stakes where the 
ends of the furrows were to be, and bent to his task. But he 
found that his experiment did not work because he could not 
see the stakes clearly from a distance. Once more he pon- 
dered, and decided that perhaps a white rag tied to the stake 
would help. This experiment worked. The farmer found 
that by keeping his eye fixed on the white spot, he could 
make a straight furrow. 

He had found the solution of his problem, and thereafter 
made all furrows in the same way. 

Here is an analysis of the process: 


1. A purpose — to make a straight furrow. 

2. An obstacle encountered — inability to make a straight fur- 
row unaided. 

3. Thought — making a plan to set up stakes. 

4, Experiment — testing the plan, which did not work. A second 
plan followed by another test. 

5. Immediate result — straight furrow achieved. 

6. Future application — all furrows made in the same way. 


Let us see if this outline applies in other study cases, begin- 
ning with a pre-school act of study. 

How a young child studied. A child saw a jar of jam on a 
high shelf, and craved a taste. He tried to reach the jam, 
but arms and legs refused to be sufficiently stretched. He 
therefore thought of ways and means. He began to experi- 
ment, possibly trying to climb by means of lower shelves. 
The experiment failed. He then realized that he must find 
something on which to climb. He looked about, decided to 
try a chair, and shoved it into position. He climbed up and 
found that he could reach the jam. He sated his appetite and 
climbed down again. Later when he wished to get anything 


52 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


beyond his unaided reach, he used a chair or something 
similar. 


1. Purpose — to get some jam. 

2. Obstacle encountered — inability to reach it. 

3. Thought — making a plan to climb up in some way, eventually 
choosing a chair. 

4. Experiment — plan tested. 

5. Immediate result — jam secured. 

6. Future application — same plan used at other times. 


Did the child study? Quite as surely as did the farmer, 
albeit both studied almost unconsciously. 

How a fifth-grade boy studied. Now let us take from 
school life an illustration concerned with an English problem. 

A fifth-grade class obtained from the principal permission 
to visit a tile factory if the owner’s consent could be obtained. 
The visit was made, and the principal expressed a desire to 
have a written account of the visit to use in connection with 
an address he was to make the following week. The class at 
first considered making a joint report, but on second thought 
decided that each pupil should write independently, and the 
best report should be chosen for the principal’s use. Here is 
the way one boy went to work. 

He had had some training in writing from a simple outline, 
and he therefore jotted down topics that in an orderly way 
suggested the main processes involved in tile-making. In an 
introductory paragraph, he told of the trip to the factory and 
the reception of the class by Mr. Bryce, the owner. Follow- 
ing his outline, he then described briefly each process. 

Up to this point he had met no obstacles that he could not 
surmount by a thoughtful application of knowledge and skill 
previously gained. But at the last, he encountered a diffi- 
culty. He wished to relate that as they left the factory Mr. 
Bryce told them that he would be glad to have them come 
again and see how the clay was tested to determine its fitness 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 53 


for a particular type of product. Having been trained to 
think a sentence through before writing a word of it, he began 
to express his thought in words: “ Mr. Bryce said that he 
would be glad to have us come again and see the clay tested.”’ 
But just as he was about to write, he remembered that there 
was some vexatious punctuation connected with writing quo- 
tations. Sometimes quotation marks were used and some- 
times not. How was it in this case? 

As he could not recall the rule, he referred to the Index of 
his textbook and found the references to direct and indirect 
quotations. He refreshed his mind on these, but even then 
he was uncertain whether or not he was quoting Mr. Bryce’s 
exact words. Both kinds of quotations might begin with 
“Mr. Bryce said.” 

Determined to make no mistake, he made the following plan : 
He would imagine himself to be Mr. Bryce, and give the 
invitation just as if the class were before him. He began, 
** I shall be glad —etc.”’ Plainly Mr. Bryce would not use 
the words “ that he ”’ in his invitation, and the quotation was 
therefore indirect, and required no special punctuation. 

At that moment he remembered that when direct quota- 
tions had first been studied, the class had looked over a num- 
ber of interesting stories and discovered that as a rule the 
direct quotation made the story much livelier than did the 
indirect. He accordingly changed his sentence as follows: 
Mr. Bryce said, “‘ I shall be glad to have you come again to 
see how the clay is tested.” 

Here is the analysis of this act of learning by self-help study : 


1. Purpose — to write a good report of a visit to a factory. 

2. Obstacle encountered — writing quotations. 

3. Thought — with help of textbook recalling what had previously 
been learned about quotations; recognizing the difficulty, 
and making a plan for help in deciding which form of quo- 
tation had been used. 


54 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


4, Experiment — testing the plan. The boy puts himself in Mr. 
Bryce’s place, and talks as that gentleman actually did; 
is convinced that the quotation framed is indirect; thinks 
further, and decides to use a direct instead of an indirect 
quotation. 

5. Immediate result — not only is quotation written correctly, 
but force is added to the report. 

6. Future application — same method is used at other times 
when in doubt. 


The cases of the farmer and the young child show how uni- 
versal study is, and how independent of outside aid it may be. 
Such cases are particularly valuable for consideration. But 
where does the teacher come in? Let us see. 

The illustration of the fifth-grade boy clearly reveals the 
effect of his school training. His good habits of work in gen- 
eral, his prompt resort to the textbook for needed help, and 
his experimentation were the direct results of self-help re- 
sponse to good teaching. Two further illustrations will be 
given showing teacher and pupil in action together while the 
latter is being taught how to study. 


LEARNING HOW TO STUDY FROM A TEXTBOOK 


Imagine that the textbook gives the lesson below. It is 
suitable for a third grade early in the school year. (Natu- 
rally larger type would be used in a pupil’s book.) 


STUDYING STORIES ABOUT PETS 


\ For your next lesson you may tell stories about one of 
your pets. If you have no pet, you may tell what one 
you should like to have and why. 

The first thing to do is to decide what you will tell 
about your pet. Shall you try to tell all about it, or shall 
you choose one interesting thing? The following stories 
may help you to decide which is the better way. They 
were told about the same canary. 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 55 


_ We have a pet canary at home. He is bright yellow. He 
eats bird seed and drinks water. Sometimes he takes a bath. 
Our canary sings very sweetly. 


My pet canary likes ice cream. Every Sunday I take him a 
spoonful after dinner. He chirps when he sees me coming with 
it. One Sunday he pecked at the ice cream ninety-nine times. 
I tried to make him do it once more, but he wouldn’t. 


In what ways are both stories good? Which story 
might be told about almost any canary? Which story 
is the more interesting? Why? 

Try to make your pet story like the more interesting 
canary story. If your pet can doa trick, or if he has ever 
done some unusual thing, that will make a good story. 

One child may tell a pet story today. The teacher will 
write it on the blackboard. If itis not told in short, clear 
sentences, the class may help. Read the story and see if 
you can make it still better. 

Take plenty of time to think about the story you are to 
tell for your next lesson. When you have decided what 
to tell about your pet, think what you wish to say first. 
Put this thought into the first sentence. Put the 
thought that should come next into a second sentence, 
and soon. Perhaps you will enjoy telling your story at 
home before you tell it at school. 


TEACHING THE LESSON 


1. Aims. The teacher’s aim is to train the children to select one 
phase of a subject and deal with it in a short paragraph, and at the 
same time learn to use the textbook. 

The pupil’s aim is to learn with the help of the book to tell a more 
interesting story than formerly. 

2. Preparation. The teacher thoroughly familiarizes herself with 
the lesson in the book, keeping her eye fixed on its purpose and the 
means employed. She recalls what the pupils already know about 
story-telling — choosing an interesting subject, telling the story in 
short, clear sentences, and making the voice help the listeners. She 


56 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


anticipates what difficulties may arise, and definitely plans how to 
meet them. 

The pupil’s preparation is all that he has already learned about 
story-telling, his ability to read, and a little previous experience with 
the language book. 

3. The lesson development. At this stage the pupils will not be 
asked to read the lesson before the class period, although some may 
do so. The lesson begins with all books open. 

Teacher: I wonder if you ever thought that the lessons in this 
book were written by some one who wished to talk to you by using 
printed words. Let us think of the author as one of your teachers. 
The book-teacher tells you first of all what today’s lesson is about. 
What is it about ? 

Pupil: Studying stories about pets. 

Teacher: Yes, today we are to study stories about pets, and that 
sounds interesting. In the first paragraph the book-teacher tells 
what you are to do in the next lesson. Read the first paragraph. 

(Whether the paragraph is read silently or aloud depends upon the 
ability of the class. Probably in a majority of third grades it will 
be well to have it read aloud in order to make sure that all children 
get the message. As soon as possible, the reading should be silent, 
the response indicating whether the message is comprehended. 
After the paragraph has been read, the teacher proceeds.) 

Teacher: You know now what today’s lesson is about, and you 
also know what you are to do tomorrow. Why do you think the 
book told you about tomorrow ? 

Pupil: I think it told us because both lessons are about pet 
stories. 

Pupil: I think it told us so we can get ready. 

Teacher: Why do you need to get ready for story-telling ? 

Pupil: We have to think how to tell the story. 

Pupil: We have to tell an interesting story. 

Pupil: We have to use good sentences. 

Teacher: Yes, there are many things to learn about story-telling. 
Have you learned them all? (The children smile, and the teacher 
continues.) If there is so much to learn, perhaps you can now think 
why the author planned today’s lesson. 

Pupil: She wanted to help us. 

Teacher: Read the second paragraph and see if thatis true. (The 
paragraph is read, and the children nod assent.) What is the first 
thing the book tells you to do? 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 57 


~ Pupil: It tells us to decide what we will tell about our pet. 

Teacher: In the next question it speaks of two ways of telling the 
pet stories. What does it speak about first ? 

Pupil: It speaks about telling all about the pet. 

Teacher: What is the other way? 

Pupil: The other way is telling one thing about the pet. 

Teacher: Does the book tell you which is the better way ? 

Pupil: No, Miss North, we have to decide ourselves. 

Teacher: How does the book help you to decide? 

Pupil: It tells two stories about the same canary. 

Teacher: All right; read the first. 

(A pupil reads the first. Another pupil then reads the second.) 

Teacher: How many of you have a canary? (Many raise their 
hands.) How many of you could tell the first story about your 
canary ? 

Pupil: It just fits my canary. 

Pupil: It fits mine too. 

Pupil: It fits mine except that my canary is greenish. (Many 
others indicate that the story would describe, or nearly describe, 
their birds.) 

Teacher: Now think of the second story once more. Does that 
fit your canary? (All shake their heads.) Now we are ready to 
answer the questions. Read silently the questions that follow the 
second story, and when you are ready to answer them, take your 
eyes off your book. 

(All read, and one by one indicate that they are ready.) 

Teacher: You may answer the questions without reading them 
aloud. 

(The questions are answered, all agreeing that the stories are both 
good because they are told in good sentences, but that the second is 
much more interesting than the first, because it tells something that 
they had not heard before.) 

Teacher: Think carefully now, and tell exactly what you have 
learned today about story-telling. Is it better to try to tell all about 
your pet, or to tell one interesting story about it? 

Pupil: It’s a lot more interesting to tell just one story. 

Teacher: Then we are ready to plan our pet stories for tomorrow. 
The book suggests that we tell one story today. How will that help 
you? 

Pupil: It will give us a chance to try. 

Teacher: Very well. Who will tell one? 


58 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


(A pupil volunteers, and tells a story about how her dog took care 
of some baby chickens. ‘The teacher writes it on the blackboard, 
and all read and try to improve it.) 

Teacher: 'The last paragraph tells you exactly how to go to work 
at your story. Read the paragraph silently, and if there is anything 
you don’t understand, ask questions. 

(As the paragraph is comparatively simple, few children will have 
difficulty in interpreting it. When the teacher is sure that all 
understand, she closes the lesson.) 

And now that you all understand how to make your stories inter- 
esting tomorrow, we shall expect the best stories you have ever told. 


An analysis of this lesson reveals the following conditions : 


1. Purpose — to learn one new way of improving stories. 

2. Problem or obstacle — to find out the new way and understand 
it. 

8. Thought — reading and interpreting the directions of the 
book; recognizing the problem; comparing the illustrative 
stories to discover in what ways they are different; select- 
ing the more interesting and discovering why it is more 
interesting ; expressing in words what is discovered. 

4. Experiment — telling in class a story in which the principle is 
applied. 

5. Result — knowledge of new principle to be applied the follow- 
ing day in telling original stories. 

6. Future application — the same principle applied whenever 
telling short, one-paragraph stories. 


On the following day the children would tell their stories. 
In each case, the class would decide whether the story-teller 
had selected one interesting fact about his pet and had told 
about nothing else. Since limiting the subject is the new 
step in story-telling, it should for the time being hold the 
center of the stage. This point being decided, the following 
questions would also be answered : 


Was the story interesting ? 
Was it told in clear sentences ? 
Did the story-teller’s voice help the listeners ? 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 59 


ANOTHER LESSON IN STUDYING FROM THE BOOK 


Before taking up this lesson, the pupils should have 
some training in interpreting directions by taking the fol- 
lowing steps: thinking what the direction means, seeing 
in their minds what they are to do, and doing it. 


WHAT LANGUAGE HAS TO DO WITH NUMBER WORK 


When you are trying to follow directions, do you act 
the moment you hear the directions? What do you do 
first ? 

The power to see things in your mind will help you in 
all your school work. You have language lessons partly 
to gain this power. Think how it helps in number work. 

Suppose you have this problem: 

In my garden are four rows of lettuce plants with six 
in each row. How many plants are there in all? 

The moment you read the problem you should see in 
your mind a picture of a garden. What things does the 
problem tell you about the garden? If you see the pic- . 
ture clearly, draw it on the blackboard. 

How many plants have you drawn ineachrow? How 
many rows have you? How many six’s of plants have 
you? How many plants have you? 

Some problems are so easy that you may not need to 
draw the picture that you have in your mind, but draw it 
if it helps you. 

This lesson is put in here to show you that a number 
problem is also a language problem. In all your number 
work, let the words of the problem make pictures in your 
mind. You will then have little trouble. 


TEACHING THE LESSON 
This lesson might be taken up in class in much the same 
way as the preceding lesson if the children still need that kind 
of help when the lesson is reached. But we will assume that 


60 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


they have now had considerable experience in studying from 
the book and can therefore study more independently. 

The first step would be taken at the close of a language 
period when the lesson would be assigned. 


Teacher: We will now take a few minutes for looking ahead at 
tomorrow’s lesson. What is the subject of the lesson ? 

Pupil: What language has to do with number work. 

Teacher: You may all read the lesson silently. When you have 
finished, take your eyes off the book. 

(The children read, and one by one indicate that they have fin- 
ished.) 

Teacher: How many understand the lesson so fully that they can 
study it without further help? 

(Some children raise their hands, and they are dismissed.) 


The teacher then asks the remaining pupils to tell what 
they do not understand, in each case allowing a pupil to give 
the needed help if possible. When everything has been made 
clear, the class is dismissed with the injunction to be prepared 
on the following day to take a simple number problem and 
explain exactly how they would study and solve it. 

The following day, in either the number or the language 
period, the lesson is taken up. The teacher has on the black- 
board a number of simple problems. 


Teacher: (Books are open.) Today we are going to learn how to 
solve a number problem with the help of what we have learned about 
language. Read the problem in the lesson. 

(A pupil reads the problem.) 

Teacher: The problem gives a word picture of the garden. What 
does it tell first ? 

Pupil: It tells that there are four rows of lettuce plants in a 
garden. 

Teacher: What does it tell next ? 

Pupil: It tells that there are six plants in each row. 

Teacher: Does it tell anything further? (Children shake heads 
or otherwise indicate their answer. If a child heedlessly reads the 
question, the teacher may ask him what the words tell. When he 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 61 


finds that they tell nothing, he makes the discovery that they ask a 
question.) 

Teacher: Does the word picture make you see a picture of the 
garden in your minds? [If it does, go to the blackboard and draw 
the picture quickly. You may make X’s for the plants. (All ora 
part of the children, as directed, go to the board and draw the pic- 
tures.) ~ 
Teacher: Do you see any picture that is not like the word picture ? 
(If any mistakes have been made, the children themselves find and 
correct them.) 

Teacher: Now look once more at the problem in the book. It 
first tells you something. What else does it do? 

Pupil: It asks us how many plants there are in all. 

Teacher: Answer the question. 

Pupil: There are twenty-four plants. 

Teacher: Now let us look at the first problem on the blackboard. 
Does it have a telling part and an asking part? If it does, read the 
telling part. 

(A pupil reads from the blackboard.) 

Teacher: That is the word picture. All who have a picture in 
their minds may close their eyes. (When a majority of the pupils 
have closed their eyes, the teacher proceeds.) Mary, Jennie, Tom, 
and Frank may go to the blackboard and draw the picture that they 
see. 

(The children draw, and the class criticizes as before.) 

Teacher: Tell what the problem asks, and give the answer. 

(The question is read, and the answer given.) 

Teacher: You will always find two parts in a problem. Which 
part helps you make a picture of the problem ? 

Pupil: The telling part helps us make pictures. 

Teacher: How does the picture help you? 

Pupil: It makes it easy to get the answer. 

Teacher: Very well. You may now take the next problem, and 
without questions from me, give the telling part of the problem, 
and make the picture you see; then read the question, and an- 
swer it. 

(Several pupils do this, and the remaining problems are dealt with 
in the same way.) 

Teacher: Why have you been studying this lesson? 

Pupil: It will help us answer our number problems. 

Teacher: How? Give the study steps. (With such additional 


62 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


questioning as may prove necessary, the class finally gives these 


steps :) Read the problem. 
Find the telling part. 
Make a picture of it. 
Find the question. 
Look at the picture and answer the question. 


Teacher: If you always study your problems in this way, you will 
have little trouble with them. Whenever hereafter you have a 
number problem, study it by taking the five study steps, and be 
ready to tell exactly how you studied it. 


It needs no argument to prove that this lesson gives valu- 
able language training in addition to the help it gives in soly- 
ing problems. It cannot be too often emphasized that it is 
the function of the language lesson to make effective in all 
life situations the power to interpret and the power to express, 
and it is of prime importance that the pupils early appreciate 
this fact. 

Perhaps enough illustrations have been given to show in a 
simple way what study is, and how children are trained to 
study. No matter how difficult later problems may prove, 
they will involve little that has not already been illustrated. 
The difference will be in the complexity of the lessons, but each 
element of the more complex situation is in itself a problem as 
simple as those that have been considered in this chapter. 

“S. +Further suggestions for teaching children to use the text- 
book. If this book were a manual for a particular set of text- 
books, it would be comparatively easy to show how the text- 
book could best be utilized in teaching children how to study. 
Since, however, it is necessary to make the suggestions some- 
what general, a few are given that will apply to any textbook. 

1. One real difficulty in teaching children to study from a text- 
book lies in the opportunity afforded the pupils to look ahead and 
thus get information that should result from their own thinking in 


response to questions. There seems to be no way of overcoming this 
textbook limitation, since the lessons must be completed, and com- 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 63 


pletion often necessitates direct reference to the facts that earlier 
questions sought to secure from the pupils. 

The remedy seems to lie in training the pupils to take one step at 
a time, answering each question as it is encountered, without seeking 
help from what follows. Should a pupil give evidence of having dis- 
covered what appears to be a royal road to learning, he might in 
class be asked to explain the lesson fully. If he can do this, he has 
evidently fully comprehended it. If he cannot stand before the class 
and give clearly the line of thought that he followed, he can readily 
be led to see the cause of his failure, and be induced to reach his goal 
by thoughtful, step-by-step study. 

2. It is a good plan for a teacher always to go over a textbook 
development lesson in order to see whether the lesson needs supple- 
menting. If such proves to be the case, the need should be provided 
for at the time the lesson is assigned. 

3. Whether or not the textbook suggests review as the first step 
after the problem of the lesson is recognized, the teacher should see 
that taking this step becomes habitual. In the study illustration 
beginning on page 52, note that the boy began his study of direct 
quotations by reviewing what he had previously learned about writ- 
ing them. First he tried to recall all that he knew, and when he 
found that he could not solve his problem by this means, he resorted 
to the textbook, using the Index to help him find what he needed. 

4. The study outline given on page 58 was derived from the analy- 
sis of a specific act of study. This is by no means the only reliable 
study outline. It will be interesting for the reader to compare 
the study factors as given by Dr. McMurry in How to Study and 
the study outline given by Dr. Horne in Story-Telling, Questioning, 
and Study. 'There are no fundamental differences in these outlines, 
although they differ in particulars. 

Here is another study outline that successful teachers have found 
very useful. It presupposes the recognition by the pupil of what is 
to be learned in the lesson. 

Review. Recall all that you already know about the subject. 
Refer to the Index of your textbook, and see if you have forgotten 
any important matter. 

Advanced study. Read each direction and question carefully, 
think what it means, plan what you are to do, do it to the best of your 
ability, and then test your work — that is, go over it to see if you 
have accomplished what you set out to do. These are the steps: 
Read and think, plan, do, test. 


64 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


In the earlier grades, the pupils should acquire good habits 
of study by working with the teacher, who leads the class 
from step to step as each is mastered. But in the higher 
grades, certainly not later than the sixth, it is very helpful for 
the children consciously to follow some simple study outline 
which has been clearly worked out, either in the textbook or 
by the class and teacher together. 


SUPERVISED STUDY 


Logically this chapter should include some discussion of 
supervised study in the more technical sense in which the 
phrase is now employed. For practical reasons, however, the 
subject is left for a later chapter. Consult the Index. 


For THoucut AND DiIscussION 


1. To what extent do you agree with this book regarding the 
main functions of a teacher? What other functions, if any, would 
you add to the list ? 

2. Analyze an act of study of your own and compare the outline 
you evolve with that on page 63. Compare it also with other study 
outlines you have found in the course of your reading. 

3. After studying the lesson beginning on page 59, select a lesson 
from your textbook and plan how you would handle it in class. 

4. Can you teach a pupil how to study without yourself first 
being able to study? Why, or why not? . 

5. What suggestions made in this chapter may be useful to you in 
teaching other subjects than English? 

6. What can you do at once to improve your pupils’ study habits ? 


For READING AND STUDY 


Dewey. The Dalton Laboratory Plan. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Earuart. Types of Teaching, Chapter XIV, ‘‘Training Children 
How to Study.” Houghton Mifflin Company. 

Hatt-Quest. The Textbook, Chapters V, VI, and VII. The Mac- 
millan Company. 

Horne. Story-Telling, Questioning, and Study, Chapter III. The 
Macmillan Company. 


TEACHER, TEXTBOOK, AND PUPIL 65 


Jones. Teaching Children to Study. The Macmillan Company. 

McGrecor. Supervised Study. The Macmillan Company. (For 
the junior high school teacher.) 

McMurry. How to Study. The Macmillan Company. (This book 
should be studied by the teacher who wishes to go into the 
subject of “‘How to Study” in a thoroughgoing way.) 

Parkuurst. Education on the Dalton Plan. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

STRAYER-NorswortTHy. How to Teach. The Macmillan Company. 
(Study particularly Chapter I, “‘The Work of the Teacher”’; 
Chapter VII, ‘How Thinking May Be Stimulated”’; and Chap- 
ter XIV, “‘How to Study.’’) 


CHAPTER FOUR 
SeLF-HEeutpe ACTIVITIES 


INTRODUCTION 


Purpose of this chapter. So far as their language value is 
concerned, the activities discussed in this chapter have worth 
only as they are applied to the development of habits and 
skills in oral and written composition. In later chapters fre- 
quent reference is made to these activities, but this prelimi- 
nary discussion serves several distinct purposes. It shows 
how the process of developing the activities in itself affords 
excellent language experience; it emphasizes their impor- 
tance; and later it obviates the necessity of stopping to dis- 
cuss the activities when it is the purpose to rivet the attention 
upon problems requiring their application. 

Habits and skills. All language instruction seeks to de- 
velop either habits or skills, but these words are so often used 
as synonyms that it seems worth while to define the sense 
in which each is employed in this book. A habit is an 
act which, irrespective of the amount of thought expended 
when first performed, has finally become mechanical. Ilus- 
trations of desirable English habits are using common words 
with unvarying correctness, spelling common words cor- 
rectly, the tendency to think before acting or expressing 
in any way, the tendency to use all necessary helps, using 
the correct letter form, and the like. A skill is the power 
to do something effectively by taking thought and using 
every other means of help that is at hand. Illustrations of 
English skills are using language in a way to interest, to 
convince, to persuade; choosing the most effective word at 
every point; consciously applying all principles learned. In 
general it may be said that the larger the number of habits 
cultivated, the greater will be the amount of mental energy 
available for developing skills. 

66 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 67 


- Self-help activities classified. Although there is some 
overlapping, self-help activities fall roughly into three classes. 
The first includes those activities that result in ideals; the 
second those that result in a knowledge of facts needed to at- 
tain the ideals; and the third those that develop efficiency in 
the individual and in the group of which he is a unit. Both 
habits and skills are concerned. Each class of activities will 
be considered in turn. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES THAT RESULT IN IDEALS 


Setting up aims. We have seen that study is mental effort 
consciously directed to overcoming the obstacles encountered 
in trying to carry out a purpose. If the effort is to produce 
results with a minimum expenditure of time and energy, it 
must at every stage of the study process be directed towarda | 
definite aim. 

From the first the pupil should help in setting up the aim, 
although the word aim may not be used with the younger 
children. Take oral composition, for instance. By contrast- 
ing in class two compositions, one having its thoughts strung 
together in a long run-on sentence, and the other hav- 
ing its thoughts expressed in clear-cut sentences, the teacher 
leads the pupils to discover that the second form is better 
because each thought stands out clearly. They therefore 
decide that they will tell their stories in short, clear sentences. 
They have now set up an aim, and for the time being this aim 
remains dominant. Each pupil who prepares a composition 
does it with the determination to use good sentences. He has 
set up a target. 

Needless to say, this aim is not pursued until every child 
hits the bull’s eye. This is neither necessary nor possible. 
The feature concerned should have enough attention to 
secure improvement and to make sure that the child keeps 
it in mind as a necessary characteristic of a good story. 


68 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


A new leading aim — choosing strong beginning sentences, 
for instance — may then be adopted, the previous one still 
being constantly kept in view. Each pupil now gives spe- 
cial attention to the way in which he starts his composition, 

In this way, as new steps in composition are taught, one by 
one, new aims are set up at intervals, each for the moment 
holding the center of the stage, and each determined by the 
pupils themselves as the result of the study of models, con- 
trasting models being particularly effective. 

The same definite setting up of aims should characterize 
all phases of language work. In every exercise, whether con- 
cerned with correct usage, interpretation, or expression in 
words, the pupil should keep his eye fixed on a target, and 
strive to get as close as possible to the bull’s eye. 

Criticism. Criticism as a self-help activity is closely related 
to setting up aims, for it is the purpose of criticism to deter- 
mine to what extent the aims have been attained. 

The teacher’s criticism is valuable only so far as it stimu- 
lates self-criticism. Day after day a teacher may suggest to 
a pupil that he speak distinctly, and day after day the injunc- 
tion may be necessary. Not until the pupil criticizes his own 
speech and makes speaking distinctly a definite aim, does real 
improvement begin. It is the teacher’s privilege to lead the 
pupil to set up an aim, and then to hold him responsible day 
after day for determining how well he is accomplishing his 
purpose. And while he is cultivating the power of self- 
criticism, he is becoming increasingly qualified to criticize his 
mates. Some characteristics of effective criticism are out- 


lined below. 


1. Criticism, like charity, begins at home. A pupil is not likely to - 
criticize the work of others in a helpful way until he has acquired 
some skill in scrutinizing and estimating the worth of his own work. 

2. Criticism is concerned with every feature of a piece of work. It 


notes strength as well as weakness. x 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 69 


_ 8. Criticism ts specific. General criticism is ordinarily wasted. 
If general terms are used, reasons should be given. To say that a 
composition is “‘good”’ means little. To say that it is good because 
it is told in clear-cut sentences, because the words make vivid pic- 
tures, or because it has a point and sticks to it — these definite criti- 
cisms are helpful. 

4. In general, criticism should be limited to the matters being spe- 
cifically aimed at. It is a good plan, at least in the earliest years, to 
frame questions to be answered by the pupil when criticizing. In the 
beginning stages of oral composition these questions might be used : 


Was the story interesting ? 
Was it told in clear sentences ? 
Did the story-teller’s voice help the listener ? 


As each additional aim is set up, a new question may be added to 
the list. 

5. Criticism is a form of service. Even young children learn to 
appreciate this fact if they are asked to help others by telling what is 
good in a piece of work and what might be improved. So far 
from being allowed to degenerate into fault finding, criticism 
should be elevated to a place of honor because it is a form of social 
service. a 

6. Criticism is constructive. No pupil should be allowed to give 
adverse criticism without being ready to suggest a remedy. 

7. Criticism is polite. This involves speaking directly to the 
person whose work is under consideration, naming the good features 
first, and then referring to the weaker features in a way that will 
not antagonize or humiliate the pupil who is being helped. As a 
rule, the failure to observe these conditions results from thought- 
lessness or the absence of a helpful spirit. A critic, for instance, 
might say, “‘Would your story be better if you used the word angry 
instead of mad?” Or, “I think it would be better to use the word 
angry instead of mad.’ Both forms of criticism are more likely to 
produce a desirable result than a bald statement like “‘ Mad isn’t 
the right word to use. You ought tosayangry.” After all, polite- 
ness is but consideration for the feelings of others. 


These fundamental characteristics of effective criticism 
should always be kept in mind by the teacher. She will, asa 
rule, criticize directly only when the pupils are incompetent 


os 


70 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


to do it. Except in the case of flagrant error, it is safe to ad- 
here to this principle of criticism: Ignore for the time being 
any matters not concerned with the avms that the class has con- 
sciously set up. 

Setting up standards. This activity is closely related to 
setting up aims and to criticism. The aim set before the class 
is often ideal in its perfection, for “‘ the reach must exceed the 
grasp.” It is distinctly valuable because of its urge to the 
greatest possible effort, but it is not always attainable. We 
train children to aim for convincing speech, and set before 
them as a model the work of a master, although we do not 
expect them to achieve an equal degree of success. For this 
reason, attainable standards should also be put before the 
class. 

At the end of the preceding chapter are listed books that 
contain standard compositions for all grades. These books 
will be of great service to a teacher for comparative use, but 
she should also derive standards from the work of her own 
pupils and the work of other pupils of the same grade in the 
home district or town. ‘The results that a class can achieve 
by studying the work of its own members and emulating the 
best is of first consequence. Later it is helpful to discover 
how this best compares with the best of more distant schools 
of like grade. 

The more exact measurement of composition quality by 
means of carefully prepared scales is considered in Chapter 
Eleven. 

Learning to see. ‘“‘ Eyes have they, but they see not.” 
This applies to many children as well as to adults. It is one 
of a teacher’s duties to see that it does not describe her 
pupils. 

Learning to see is closely related to all that has preceded 
in this chapter concerning written composition. Many pupils 
who know exactly what they should do fail to do it, and then 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES el 


fail to see the error they have made. It is one thing to have 

on the retina the image of what has been written, and quite 
another to apprehend errors. And yet the errors that the 
pupils cannot detect for themselves might almost as well 
remain uncorrected as to be pointed out by the teacher. One 
good exercise for training children to see is to write on the 
blackboard a composition written by one of the class, tell how 
many errors it contains of the sort the class is battling against, ‘e 
and give a limited time in which to find them all. Composi- 
tions may also be returned to the pupils who wrote them, 
bearing simply a figure that records the number of mistakes 
discovered by another pupil. It then becomes the writer’s——~ 
job to find and correct them. Persistent effort of this sort by 

a pupil, combined with a natural satisfaction in making the 
improvement that is expected, will ultimately in most cases 
destroy the blind spot that has resulted from carelessness or 
indifference. 

Learning tohear. As in the case of normal eyes, perfectly 
good ears often fail to function effectively. A child knows, 
let us say, that there is no such word as ain’t; but he uses it, 
nevertheless, and he fails to notice when another person uses 
it. This is due to long-continued habit. The child will have 
gone a long way toward breaking the habit when he becomes 
sensitive to the use of the word by other people. 

Exercises in recording all errors of speech heard, as 
described in Chapter Five, tend to make the ears critical, and 
so help to establish an ideal of correct speech. This once 
established, the habit of using the word, even though it may 
still persist, has been undermined. The child who gave the 
following advice to her younger sister had already gone a long 
way toward correcting her own speech: “ Eva, you mustn’t 
say ain't; it ain’t right.” 


72 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES RESULTING IN KNOWLEDGE 


Habits and skills are outcomes sought. They often de- 
pend upon facts, and consequently a knowledge of certain 
facts is necessary. This knowledge is of use only as it func- 
tions in improved expression, but the acquisition of the facts 
when they are needed is an important part of language training. 


- Several activities are involved. 


Learning to use the dictionary. Active mental life is based 
on thought, and if thoughts are to be communicated in writ- 
ing, symbols must be employed. Learning the forms and 
combinations of these symbols is therefore a necessary lan- 
guage activity. 

In most schools spelling is wisely taught as a separate sub- 
ject, the effort being made to teach only such words as are 
likely to be used in writing. But no speller contains all the 
words that a pupil needs, and in any case a doubtful word can- 
not always be quickly found in the speller. There are times 
when the pupil must use a self-help means for learning how to 
spell a needed word. If he has not learned by observation 
how to spell it, he must resort to the dictionary. 

The technique of consulting the dictionary should be so.’ 
thoroughly taught, and so much practice should be given, 
that the use of this self-help aid will become a satisfying 
habit instead of being the burden that most children consider 
it. The preparatory steps are learning the alphabet; find- 
ing words in comparatively short alphabetical lists, only the 
initial letter being considered ; arranging words in alphabeti- 
cal lists with reference to the first letter; discovering that it 
takes a long time to find a word in a long list of words all 
beginning with the same letter, and that therefore the second 
letter must be considered. 

For drill, groups of words like the following may be 
arranged by considering the second letter : 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 73 


bend, break, better, bank, border, built, blanket 
cramp, clock, camp, church, cent, corner, cinder, cut 
plant, peace, practice, pinch, poultry, part, punch 


The next step is to discover that sometimes many words 
begin with the same two letters, and that therefore in an 
alphabetical list it is necessary to think of the third letter. 
Children like to arrange in alphabetical order groups of words 
like the following : 


church, child, change, choose, cheese 
shape, short, sheep, shine, shut 
sardines, sample, satchel, safety, salad, sap, save, sail 


When the children have had much practice of this sort, and 
much practice in finding words in spellers, readers, or other 
books containing alphabetical lists, they are ready to use the 
dictionary. They should be encouraged to earn dictiona- 
ries for themselves if the school does not provide them. 

Here are the steps: (1) Finding a given letter quickly by 
thinking whether it comes nearer the beginning, the end, or 
the middle of the alphabet, and locating it with as little flut- 
tering of leaves as possible. It helps to note which letter 
comes about the middle of the dictionary. (2) Hunting for 
a particular word by finding the section of the dictionary de- 
voted to the initial concerned. (3) Noting the second let- 
ter of the word, and in accordance with its position in the 
alphabet, locating the pages where it will be likely to occur. 
(4) Studying the guide words and finding the exact page. 
(5) Last of all, finding the word on the page. 

It is well not to teach the use of the dictionary for pronounc- 
ing purposes until a real need for such help develops. This 
use of the dictionary involves introducing the pupils to the 
key words at the foot of each page. Call attention to the 
fact that the vowels have many different sounds, and that 
the dictionary uses a special mark to indicate each of these 


74 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


sounds; the same mark is found in a short, simple word at 
the foot of the page, and this reveals the sound of the letter. 
While some diacritical marks are used for consonants, they 
are of slight importance, because dictionaries usually in- 
dicate any consonant sound other than the most common one 
by spelling the word phonetically. 

The use of the dictionary for finding the meanings of words 
involves reading all the definitions and selecting the one that 
seems best to fit the sentence in which the unfamiliar word 
occurs. 

A very important use of the dictionary is concerned with 
vocabulary growth. Not later than the seventh grade, the 
pupils should begin to make somewhat fine distinctions in the 
meanings of words. This leads to the study of synonyms. 
Show the children how a large dictionary indicates synonyms, 
so that they can often find a better word for expressing an 
idea than the one that first occurs to them. This is one self- 
help method of accumulating a stock of expressive words. 

Sooner or later, the pupils should investigate a large dic- 
tionary and discover all the kinds of help it gives, so that they 
«may use it whenever it will be of service to them. 

If the dictionary is to become a true source of self-help, it 
must be used with considerable ease, but this ease is not 
acquired by only occasional reference to it. Drill exercises 
are essential. Here are a few suggestions : 


1. Put on the blackboard a list of five words, and see who can 
- findthem most quickly. Have the children record on a slip of paper 
the page of the dictionary on which each word was found. 

2. Put a long list on the blackboard and see who can find most 
words in a given period of time. Have pages recorded. 

3. Put on the blackboard a list of words commonly mispro- 
nounced, and see which pupil can most quickly find their correct 
pronunciation. ‘The winner writes the words of his winning list 
on the blackboard and explains clearly and fully how the dictionary 
indicates their correct pronunciation. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 75 


The G. and C. Merriam Company, Springfield, Massachu- 
setts, publishers of the Webster dictionaries, issue a small 
pamphlet entitled “‘ Use of the Dictionary — Games with the 
Dictionary.” This is offered free to teachers. 

Learning how to use a dictionary with ease does not neces- 
sarily develop the habit of using it, and therefore the teacher 
must see to it that the habit 1s formed. 'There is probably no 
better way than by holding the pupils responsible for obtain- 
ing the kind of help it gives whenever the help is needed. 
There is rich moral training, as well as composition training, 
in refusing to excuse a mistake that might have been avoided 
by using the dictionary or some other means of self-help. 

Learning to use reference books. The reference books 
that any given class should be taught to use are, of course, 
those that are available. When the topics are alphabetically 
arranged, the books can easily be consulted by pupils who 
have been taught to use the dictionary. The teacher should 
go over the books with the class so that the pupils will realize 
exactly what type of aid they afford. Thereafter, the use of 
the reference books not only should be encouraged by the 
teacher, but should be expected. A carpenter trying to 
smooth a rough board with a jackknife, when a plane was 
at hand, would be a sorry spectacle. Just as absurd is it 
for a pupil to do his work without using the best helps 
at hand. 


Using the public library. No specific directions are given ™~ 


here for teaching pupils to use the public library, because of 
the great variation in size and in procedure in different com- 
munities. The library instruction may be given by the 
teacher under the direction of the librarian, but the best plan 
is to have the pupils go to the library and learn to use it under 
the eye of the librarian or an assistant. If this instruction is 
of the best kind, it will make the pupils self-reliant, and at the 
same time ready to ask questions when this is necessary. Try 


76 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


to cultivate the library habit by developing strong interests 
in the pupils, and then showing them how the library will 
help them to further these interests. 

Learning to use the language textbook. Review what has 
been said in Chapter Three about using the textbook. Make 
the pupils familiar with every part of the textbook — the 
title page, the Contents, and the Index, as well as the pages 
containing text. Let them discover how the Index refers to 
all phases of a topic and see how helpful this arrangement is 
for review purposes. 

As suggested in Chapter Three, train the pupil to recognize 
review as the first step in studying a lesson that is to teach a 
new fact, and hold him responsible for the review. The 
teacher’s richest opportunity for developing a sense of 
responsibility in the pupil lies in excusing no failure that 
might have been avoided by using all help afforded by the 
textbook. 

In these days of free textbooks, the problem of reviewing 
the work of a grade that used an earlier book of the series is a 
serious one. ‘Treating facts that have already been taught as 
if they were new seems unwise. Even though the pupil has 

forgotten much that he learned in an earlier grade, he should 
* know that he is reviewing, and he should attack this review 
~ much more independently than he would new facts or princi- 
ples. The best device for review is a summary of facts taught 
in the previous book, placed apart from the regular lessons, 
but constantly available for reference. If this review is not 
found in the textbook used, the notebooks described on page 
78 may be used for the purpose. The point needing emphasis 
is that the pupil should assume all possible responsibility. 
Train him to use his textbook freely for reference. So far 
from being prohibited from consulting it, as in the olden days, 
he should be encouraged to look upon it as a good pal ready 
to help in time of need. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 77 


_ Learning to apply grammar facts. The principal justifi- 
cation for grammar in the grades lies in its possible service to 
the pupils as a means of self-help. This being the case, only 
functional grammar should be taught. Its purpose is to 
establish, or to strengthen, either habits or skills. Since 
methods of teaching grammar are considered in later chapters, 
the subject is merely mentioned here as one of the self-help 
activities resulting in necessary knowledge. 

Learning to see. Observation has already been discussed 
in the preceding section in connection with errors in written 
work. It has a still more valuable function as a self-help 
means of gaining valuable information. 

To most of us the familiar too frequently becomes the com- 
monplace. The things we see day after day have little 
attraction for us, and often are not closely observed. The 
person who is the exception to the rule finds a world in a drop 
of gutter water, and becomes a scientist. It is one function 
of a teacher to open the eyes of her pupils so that they will 
find in their surroundings something of the hidden magic that 
reveals itself to him who searches it out. 

The language value of this kind of observation lies in its 
enrichment of the mental life. ‘‘ Out of the abundance of 
the heart the mouth speaketh.” The child who learns to use 
his eyes will never be at a loss for something of interest to 
talk about to his classmates. The discovery made by close 
observation affords the richest material for oral or written 
composition, and at the same time supplies the highest type 
of motivation — the desire to share with others something of 
genuine interest and value. 

To secure from her pupils this observation, the teacher 
herself must be on the alert and ready to suggest suitable 


material for consideration. Plant and animal life; seasonal / 


changes; building operations; all sorts of human activities ; 
the effects of running water, of drought, of excessive heat — 


78 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


anything that promises to yield results may be closely 
observed. Then set a time for reporting discoveries. Under 
an enthusiastic teacher, a class thus handled becomes a group 
of enthusiastic children eager to discuss and to interpret what 
they have seen. What better language work can be imagined 
than such reporting and the discussion it precipitates under 
the stimulus of a great interest ? 

Under the head of learning-to-see activities may be included 
excursions and visits to museums, industries, and other local 
places of interest. Seeing, interpreting, reporting — these 
are the steps. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES RESULTING IN EFFICIENCY 


Efficiency is the power successfully to achieve purposes. 
The previous sections of this chapter deal with activities that 
result in ideals and activities that result in necessary knowl- 
edge. This section deals with activities that help secure 
efficiency in attaining ideals or purposes. Efficiency may 
be personal or social, the latter being the higher type, but 
dependent upon personal efficiency. 

The notebook as an aid in gaining efficiency. The note- 
book is a means of attaining personal efficiency. It is a well- 
known fact that in no subject do children manifest so pro- 
nounced a degree of variation as in language power. It is 
impossible, therefore, for a textbook to meet individual needs 
in a thoroughgoing way. This makes necessary the notebook, 
which is essentially an individual language book. Its use 
should be begun not later than the fifth grade. 

In a class discussion, allow the pupils to enumerate their 
greatest language difficulties, and thus discover the wide 
variation that exists. This being recognized, the value of a 
notebook as a means of overcoming individual weakness, of 
increasing individual power, and of strengthening the sense 
of individual responsibility, will quickly be appreciated. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 79 


The stronger the enthusiasm that is aroused at the outset, the 
greater will be the helpfulness of the notebooks. 

Making the notebooks. As a convenience to the teacher 
in handling the collected notebooks, it is best to have a uni- 
form size, whether the blank books are purchased or made by 
the pupils. If made.at school, they should be given strong, 
durable covers, because they will have constant use. In 
either case they must be prepared for service. 

As far as possible, let the pupils plan the details of the note- 
books. They will already have discovered that they have 
individual spelling and pronunciation difficulties, that they 
make different errors in the use of words, and that they differ 
widely in composition ability, both as regards vocabulary and 
expression. Sections for spelling, pronunciation, common 
errors, and composition will therefore be desirable. Let the 
pupils study their textbooks and find out what sort of informa- 
tion the Contents gives. In order that they may find quickly 
what they need, they will also need a Contents in their note- 
books. If they decide to include spelling, correct usage, 
pronunciation, vocabulary, and composition, they should 
decide what proportion of the notebook space shall be devoted 
to each. Some children like to copy into their notebooks the 
poems they commit to memory, so that they may review them 
easily. If thisis done, a poetry section should also be included. 

Arranging the Contents, numbering the pages, entering each 
topic at the head of the page on which it begins, and writing 
the name and address of the owner of the notebook in a suit- 
able place, are all matters that the class can plan for them- 
selves. Let them discuss freely the questions that arise, and 
in each case decide what to do only after the matter at issue 
has been considered from every point of view. This dis- 
cussion affords valuable language practice, because it is con- 
cerned with a real situation, and decisions must be reached 
just as a group of business men would reach them. 


80 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Spelling. Each pupil should be trained to write in its 
proper section all words that he misspells in any written 
exercise whatever. ‘These are the most important words for 
the pupil concerned to fix permanently in mind. They 
should be reviewed frequently, the review not being left to 
chance. At intervals, the class should be grouped in twos, 
each pupil testing his companion on the words in the spelling 
section of his notebook. A failure to spell one of these words 
should be considered a much more serious matter than the 
misspelling of other words. Hold the pupils strictly respon- 
sible for these words. When a word has been spelled cor- 
rectly in five successive reviews, it may be crossed out neatly, 
and thereafter ignored unless it is again misspelled in a 
written exercise. 

From the outset, train the pupils to take the notebook 
seriously. The notebooks should occasionally be called in 
by the teacher and examined, in order to keep alive the chil- 
dren’s sense of responsibility, but the pupils themselves should 
do most of the work. On page 85, where team work is dis- 
cussed, workable methods are suggested. 

Correct pronunciation. 'This section should be handled 
much as the spélling section is. Words that a given pupil 
mispronounces should be entered in their proper section, and 
thereafter pronounced correctly and distinctly day after day. 
In order to keep the matter in the child’s mind it is a good 
plan frequently to ask how many are remembering the daily 
drill on individual mispronunciations. The pronunciation 
may be tested at the same time that the spelling words are 
reviewed. 

Correct usage. Children misuse words because through 
imitation or carelessness they began wrong, and have per- 
sisted until a habit has become deeply rooted. The only 
remedy is to establish a counter habit. A child may know 
that he says come when he should say came. He may even 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 81 


in higher grades understand the grammatical principle 
involved, but he still says, I come home yesterday. He needs 
to say I came home yesterday and similar sentences so many 
times that the new habit will eliminate the old. It matters 
little whether he thinks about the sentences when he repeats 
them. He did not think about the sentences when he formed | 
the wrong habit. The important thing is to say the correct 
form over and over again until the muscles concerned utter 
them voluntarily. If a boy repeats a correct form fifty times 
a day, and is careful not to fall back upon the incorrect form, 
the bad habit will not long persist. But a boy is not likely 
to give himself this drill unless his ambition is thoroughly 
aroused. He must realize the importance of using correct 
English, he must plan to drill himself on his individual errors 
every day, and he must train his ear so that after a while the 
incorrect expression, whether used by himself or by another 
person, will have a distinctly unpleasant sound. 

In entering in the notebooks the correct forms whose use 
is to be established, the pupils should use each word in a sen- 
tence of the sort in which the incorrect form is ordinarily used. 
It helps to have the children time themselves and report how 
many times a given sentence was repeated in, say, two min- 
utes. They should be fully conscious of the purpose of the 
frequent repetition. 

See the chapter on “ Correct Usage ” for methods of dis- 
covering individual and class errors of speech. 

Vocabulary. In the vocabulary section, each pupil should 
record words that he wishes to add to his stock. One good 
method grows naturally out of the study of prose or poetry. 
After he has studied a piece of prose, for instance, ask the 
pupil to find words that were particularly effective in contrib- 
uting beauty or vividness or force to the selection. After 
several words have been mentioned, have the class select two 
or three that they would like to add to their working vocabu- 


82 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


laries. These words should be used in original sentences and 
written in the notebooks. From time to time ask the chil- 
dren to report what words from the notebook list they have 
found occasion to use. When the children realize that they 
are selecting words to use in expressing their own thoughts, 
they soon select not only well, but with actual shrewdness. 
The extent to which they profit from the exercise will depend 
upon the firmness with which the teacher holds them to the 
task until the use of the notebook in this way becomes fully 
established, and upon their own appreciation of the value of a 
large stock of forceful, expressive words. 

Compositions. It is by no means necessary to have all 
written compositions copied in the notebooks, but occasion- 
ally a composition written as a part of the language work, or 
a paragraph relating to some other school subject, should be 
written in the composition section. This provides a means 
of noting improvement. A series of compositions, the first 
written at the beginning of the school year and the others at 
regular intervals thereafter, is a valuable aid to the pupil in 
estimating his own advancement. He is often interested in 
writing on a subject used months earlier, in order to see if 
both his thinking and his expression have grown more vig- 
orous and more convincing. | 

Poetry. If the notebooks’ have a poetry section, let the 
pupils copy into this section the poems that they commit to 
memory. They will then have them in convenient form for 
review, and this will be particularly helpful if the poems 
are not found in any book that is permanently available for 
reference. 

Aims. In the higher grades, it is helpful for the pupils to 
enter their good and their poor English stock on opposite 
pages, crossing out the poor-stock items when they have been 
disposed of. 

A given school may not decide upon precisely the categories 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 83 


suggested here, and this does not matter. The important 
thing is to use the notebooks in such a way that the pupils 
will have a self-help aid in fighting and conquering their bad 
habits, and a permanent record of their improvement. 
Every extensive study of composition made throughout the 
country has revealed the deplorable fact that the same types 
of error are made in the eighth grade as in the third and 
fourth. This indicates the failure of teachers in many places 
themselves to work with a definite aim, and to train their 
pupils to strive, not for general composition excellence, but for 
one definite skill after another, holding them responsible at 
each stage for acquiring a reasonable degree of the skill 
aimed at. 

Using a language bulletin board. A language bulletin 
board for recording in a conspicuous way what for the 
moment is receiving special attention, is invaluable. If there 
is not sufficient blackboard space, the pupils can make a 
bulletin board by fastening together several smooth boards 
and painting them black. The device can then be hung in a 
convenient place. Or, better still, cloth surfaced for the use 
of crayon may be arranged on a curtain roller. This has the 
advantage of being easily disposed of when not in use. It is 
probably true that a bulletin board made by the class will 
arouse more interest than one secured without effort, and 
the class discussion involved in planning and making it is in 
itself a worth-while language activity. 

The bulletin board is especially helpful in dealing with the 
mechanics of writing. Imagine, for instance, that the com- 
position needs of the class require the use of the comma 
in a series. The use of the comma having been taught by 
observation and discussion, much immediate drill is desirable 
to establish the habit of applying what has been learned 
whenever written expression demands it. It is a good plan 
in work of this sort to appoint a pupil each day to write on the 


er aeall 


84 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


/ bulletin board, before school the following morning, a sen- 
tence using the comma in a series. A minute may then be 
taken at the beginning of the recitation period for criticizing 
the sentence and for explaining the use of the comma. If 
the sentence is copied later, the pupils will have had effective 
drill in correctly using the comma in this way. 

Other uses of the bulletin board are recording the results of 
team work, listing class aims, and keeping before the class 
slogans that they themselves have framed. Additional uses 
will occur to teachers, and also to pupils. It pays to keep 
before any public the important matters with which it is 
concerned. The entire task of keeping a bulletin board 
should devolve upon the pupils. It may sometimes be put in 
charge of pupils who because of proficiency in some particular 
line of work have been excused from it for a time. 

Vocabulary building. This activity has already been 
discussed, and will be considered again in connection with 
methods in oral and written composition. A few of the com- 
monest methods of enlarging the vocabulary are listed here 
so that they may be kept in mind and used whenever oppor- 
tunity offers. 


1. When story-telling is going on, give special attention to the 
words used, each pupil being ready to suggest better ones when this 
is possible. 

2. Have children notice and report vivid, forcible words or 
phrases that they read or commit to memory, trying to add to their 
own speaking or writing vocabularies those that would help them 
better to express their own ideas. 

8. Do not make the mistake of telling pupils to reproduce in 
their own words what they have read. ‘This is precisely what they 
should not do. While they will, of course, use many of their own 
words, they should at times make a distinct effort to substitute for 
the less expressive words which they ordinarily use the more exact 
words of the author. When preparing for reproduction, it is some- 
times worth while to select in advance two or three particularly 
pleasing words or phrases, and plan to use them in telling the story. 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 85 


4. The teacher’s own vocabulary, simple, exact, and expressive, is 
often a stimulus to imitation. 

5. Give judicious praise to well-selected words in story-telling. 
This greatly encourages the pupil. Train the children to commend 
pleasing language when criticizing the work of their classmates. 

6. In all literature work, show that the beauty or the force or the 
convincing quality of the text is due to the nice selection of words. 

7. Use the notebooks faithfully for vocabulary growth. 


Team work. Team work is a distinctly social activity. 
At about the age of twelve, say in the sixth grade, the “gang ”’ 
spirit becomes remarkably developed. Children like to play 
and to work in groups, and for the time being they are much 
more sensitive to the opinion of their fellows than to that of 
parent or teacher. It is wise to take advantage of this cir- 
cumstance, as well as of the spirit of competition that is inher- 
ent in most children. 

Six or eight pupils make a good number fora team. With 
the help of the teacher the children should form the teams, 
making sure that they are as evenly matched as possible. 

Each team should elect its own captain, considering the 
readiness of the candidate to take the lead in an undertaking, 
and not merely his popularity. ‘Teams usually work best if 
each contains both boys and girls. 

When the teams have been formed, the captain of each 
should see that the members of his team work faithfully for 
the team in all contests — spelling matches, correct-usage 
drives, and the like. The teacher may call in the notebooks 
through the team captains, holding them responsible for those 
of the entire team. Most children like to work for points, a 
certain number being given for various types of achievement, 
such as winning a contest or doing particularly good work in 
any line of effort. The fact that the points earned by an indi- 
vidual go to the credit of the team strengthens the social spirit. 

The team spirit works in close codperation with the teacher 


86 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


when she is trying to overcome a common bad habit — care- 
lessness, for instance. If it is decided to wage unrelenting 
warfare against carelessness, it is effective to have a team de- 
prived of a given number of points for every piece of careless 
written work handed in by one of its members. The team 
members will be expected to look over the compositions before 
they are handed in, and do all they can to stimulate the pupils 
who are either careless or indifferent. A teacher who has 
not tried the plan little realizes how hard a lazy boy will some- 
times work to escape the scorn of his team mates. He dreads 
it, and quite naturally, because such is the gang spirit that it 
will not tolerate any disloyalty on the part of its members. 
Wisely directed, the team organization is valuable in a school. 

The socialized recitation. One hears a good deal in these 
days about the socialized recitation. The term is often 
loosely used. In certain schools that claim to have intro- 
duced the socialized recitation, investigation has revealed 
that the socialization consisted solely in a pupil’s standing 
before the class and asking questions that otherwise would be 
asked by the teacher. It matters little who asks routine 
questions, but questioning to secure thought is a sufficiently 
difficult task for a trained teacher. To delegate the responsi- 
bility altogether to a pupil, no matter how clever he may be, 
can but be disadvantageous to a class. 

True socialization is little concerned with the mere matter 
of asking questions. It consists in a free give-and-take of 
ideas, such as characterizes the pupils’ out-of-school activities, 
but a give-and-take that is directed by the teacher toward 
definite ends, and guided by her in such a way that the end is 
achieved with a maximum of independent pupil codperation. 
The teacher who helps start a lesson and then guides judi- 
ciously, giving assistance when needed, but throwing upon the 
pupil all possible responsibility, need not be disturbed by the 
demand for the socialized recitation. She has already intro- 


SELF-HELP ACTIVITIES 87 


duced it. When all has been said and done, the socialized 
recitation is the recitation that is based on the principle of 
pupil self-help. 

Class organization. Class organization is a fruitful means 
of developing social efficiency, and is a valuable seventh- and 
eighth-grade activity. It is discussed in a later chapter. 


For THoucut AND Discussion 


1. In the course of a conference on ways and means for training 
children to study, a teacher remarked, “Although I did not realize it 
at the time, my mother, who had only a common school education, 
gave me my first lesson in real study. It was during my second 
year in the high school. I wished to make myself a simple dress, and 
Mother encouraged me to do so, saying that she would help me. 
Visions of Mother’s skillful fingers performing the difficult parts of 
my task flitted before my eyes, and I anticipated no real trouble. 
Mother helped me select a suitable pattern, and I asked her to show 
me how to cut out the dress. Mother showed me by directing me to 
the printed directions that came with the pattern, and firmly insisted 
that if I was to make the dress, I must understand the pattern. 
She helped me only when it was evident that there was no way in 
which I could help myself. Later, when the dress was ready to try 
on, Mother arranged mirrors so that I could see the back of the dress 
as wellasthefront. I remember that the right shoulder needed con- 
siderable alteration. I asked Mother to pin it as it should be, and 
she replied by suggesting that I tell her how to make the alteration. 
After a number of unsuccessful attempts, I succeeded in getting it 
right. At the time I could not understand why Mother did not 
make the alteration and so save a lot of time and a lot of her own 
energy as well as mine. I know now.” 

If you think that the mother described was a real teacher, prove 
it by discussing clearly her attitude in the dressmaking project. 

2. Compare the self-help method of making notebooks described 
in this chapter with the following: The teacher plans the books, and 
dictates to the pupils each step of the process. Which method would 
take more time? Which method would be easier for the pupils? 
Which is the better method, and why? 

3. Make a list of the activities described in this chapter that are 
suitable for your grade. Plan definitely how you can utilize them _ 


88 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


in such a way that the pupils will be required to use all the power 
they have in mastering them. At what points will the pupils pos- 
sibly need your help? How can you render this help so that the 
pupils will become better able to help themselves in carrying on a 
similar activity ? 

4. This chapter discusses two ways in which children should be 
taught really to see. What is the first? the second? What inter- 
esting feature of the school neighborhood can you make the starting 
point in training your pupils to form the habit of observing the 
everyday things about them? ‘Try to plan a simple project that 
will make such observation necessary. 

5. Do your pupils give any evidences of the gang spirit? If 
they do, how can you utilize the team idea in your English work? 
Think of ways not suggested in this book. 


For READING AND STUDY 


This chapter deals with a considerable number of activities that 
are useful in themselves, and equally valuable for the self-help train- 
ing they give the pupil. Perhaps you can do no more profitable 
reading at this point than to find in the books listed at the close of 
Chapter One, or in similar books, all references to self-activity, work- 
ing with definite aims, learning by doing, and the like. Run through 
the Index of each book you have at hand, and note all topics that 
promise to make clear the principles underlying learning in a self- 
help way. Look up the references and make notes for future 
use. 


CHAPTER FIVE 
Correct UsaGE 


INTRODUCTION 


Purpose of this chapter. Like the preceding chapter, this 
one deals with a subject that is of supreme importance and 
that must never be lost from sight during the entire school 
course. It is concerned with every life activity that demands 
expression in words, whether it be a game on the playground ; 
a family chat around the dinner table; conversation on the 
street, in stores and offices, at picnics, or at the swimming 
hole; or any school exercise, regardless of the subject with 
which it deals. It is the purpose of this chapter to treat the 
subject in a progressive way, with the assumption that the 
methods suggested, or others equally effective, will be used 
unremittingly until at least the most glaring errors are elimi- 
nated from the speech of the classes concerned. 

Significance of the words “correct usage.’”’ The words 
“correct usage” have a somewhat broad significance. 
They may relate to either oral or written expression. In the 
former case, they include the use of the voice in enunciating 
and pronouncing, and the proper use of words. In the latter 
case likewise they relate to the correct use of words, and also 
to the more technical matters of spelling, arrangement on 
paper, capitalization, and punctuation. Since the technical 
features are considered in connection with written composi- 
tion, this chapter is devoted exclusively to the use of the voice 
and the correct use of words. 


THE USE OF THE VOICE 


Importance of the subject. The supervisor of speech cor- 
rection and speech improvement in one of our largest cities 
recently said, ‘‘ Nowhere in the civilized world today is slip- 

89 


90 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


shod speech so prevalent as in the public schools of the cities 
of the United States.”” The remark might well have omitted 
the limitation of the indictment to the schools, for the speech 
of the schools merely reflects the speech of society outside the 
schools. But in any case the school must shoulder the re- 
sponsibility of improving in some degree the unfortunate con- 
dition that unquestionably exists. 

Speech defects. Speech defects, such as stammering, lisp- 
ing, and various types of nasality, due to nervous conditions, 
to malformation of some part of the speech organism, or to 
adenoids or other forms of obstruction, require the services 
of a specialist. Many of our large cities now make provision 
for this work, but the majority of teachers must still assume 
_ some responsibility for helping children having any of these 
defects. 

Unintelligent effort, no matter how sympathetic, may 
easily do harm. It is very important, therefore, that a 
teacher who has pupils with speech defects secure a standard 
treatise on the subject and study the problem in a thorough- 
going way. Several reliable books are listed at the end of this 
chapter. 

Poor speech habits. The word habits, as here used, relates 
to incorrect speech due to ignorance or to carelessness, and 
not to physical defects. While the help of a specialist is desir- 
able in dealing with these bad speech habits, it is not abso- 
lutely necessary. Any teacher can achieve significant results 
by intelligent, painstaking effort. The books listed at the 
end of the chapter will be most useful. The suggestions that 
follow will also be useful in connection with both enunciation 
and pronunciation. 

First steps in securing distinct enunciation. Indistinct 
enunciation is ordinarily so strongly intrenched that a teacher 
must not expect to win a speedy victory. A habit due to 
long practice requires time and patience for its eradication. 


CORRECT USAGE 91 


Regular, systematic drill of the right sort is essential. If a 
pupil finds it difficult to articulate a given sound, — th in 
think, for instance, — the first step is to help him to pro- 
nounce it. Many children, after repeated attempts, give the 
sound correctly without conscious attention to the position 
of the vocal organs. Others must learn to manipulate tongue 
and lips. 

The teacher should practice giving the sound before a 
mirror until she is perfectly familiar with the position of her 
tongue with relation to the teeth and lips, so that she can 
assume the correct position promptly and retain it as long as 
is necessary. The children note the position of the teacher’s 
organs, place theirs in the same position, and at the same 
time utter the sound th. A successful voice teacher finds it 
helpful to have at hand a small mirror so that the pupils can 
see if they actually place their tongues as the teacher does 
hers. Much practice is then necessary to secure the giving of 
the sound, by itself and in words, with utmost accuracy and 
promptness. 

Drill on groups of words containing the same sound. Drill 
on individual words may well be followed by drill on groups 
of words, each of which contains the sound presenting the 
difficulty. The following words may be used for the sound of 
th as in think: 


thank think throw thrash 
thanking thinking throwing thrashing 
threw thimble thread three 


The sentences below will help in securing good enunciation, 
and will at the same time amuse the children in their efforts 
not to trip over their own tongues: 


I threw the thread and the thimble. 
Thank you for throwing the three thimbles. 


/ f 
Fa 


92 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Here are some drill exercises the first three of which employ 
the same sound, first at the beginning of words, then at the 
end, and lastly in the middle: 


The sh sound: 


she 
shut 
shine 


The ch sound: 


chick 
church 
chop 


The th sound as in that: 


the 
this 
that 
there 
them 
then 
those 


The wh sound: 


when 
where 
white 


The ing sound : 


ring 
sing 
bring 
run 
running 
jump 
jumping 
take 
taking 


wish 
dish 
fish 


rich 
much 
such 


with 


wheel 
what 
while 


singing 
ringing 
bringing 
play 
playing 
give 
giving 
catch 


catching 


wishes 
dishes 
fishes 


riches 
hitches 
pitches 


brother 
mother 
father 
wither 


whip 
which 
why 


thing 
morning 
evening 
cut 
cutting 
pull 
pulling 
stand 
standing 


The drill in the single words of any group should invariably 


be followed by sentence drill. 


It is important that the sen- 


CORRECT USAGE 93 


tences be of the kind used by the pupils in their home and 
school life. Remember that a sound is not mastered when 
it can be uttered by itself with painstaking effort; it is mas- 
tered when it is clearly articulated whenever it occurs. 

It is understood, of course, that many classes of words other 
than those listed will require drill. Vowel sounds frequently 
require attention, and final consonants are sure to be dropped 
in most schools. Each teacher should discover the difficulties 
of her class and attack these systematically. 

While the class drills are necessarily concerned with the 
errors that are somewhat common, the individual should not 
be forgotten. Give as much time as possible to individual 
needs, striving most of all to arouse the pupil’s ambition to 
speak in a clear-cut manner, and encourage him to fight his 
own bad habits persistently. Try to arouse an appreciation 
of the time loss resulting from the necessity of giving drills 
to eradicate careless habits of speech. Do not fail to com- 
mend improvement. 

How bad habits of pronunciation are formed. As a rule, 
incorrect pronunciation results from imitation. At home, on 
the street, or wherever he comes in contact with people, the 
child hears the incorrect form, and adopts it as a matter of 
course. The mispronunciation may be due to ignorance, or it 
may be due altogether to slovenly habits of speech. In either 
case, the child hears it, repeats it, and so perpetuates the error. 

The first steps in securing correct pronunciation. What- 
ever the cause of a mispronunciation, the difficulty can be 
overcome only by a process of substitution. Just as the bad 
habit results from continually hearing and repeating the 
wrong form, so the establishment of the desired habit is 
dependent upon hearing repeatedly the correct pronunciation 
and using it over and over again until it naturally displaces 
its rival. This necessitates the creation of conditions that 
demand the frequent hearing and the abundant repetition 


war 


94 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


that are needed. Here are a few foundation suggestions for 
use in all grades: 

1. Establish a standard by making your own pronunciation a 
model of correct and clear-cut utterance. 

2. Call attention to mispronounced words by giving the correct 
pronunciation and having it immediately repeated by the pupil 
who made the error. 

3. Keep up the type of correction noted in 1, and also select for 
intensive drill a few of the most commonly mispronounced words, 
attacking them at first one at a tume. 

Selecting words for drill. Many books give lists of words 
for drill. These lists will help you if they happen to be the 
words your pupils habitually mispronounce. Just, can, white, 
since, catch, and ing words are everywhere maltreated. It is 
well to know this and to be alert in detecting these mispro- 
nunciations, but first of all a teacher should discover the needs 
of her own pupils. It is a good plan to keep a notebook in 
which the words are written when they are heard incorrectly 
mispronounced. Make a mark after a word whenever the 
mispronunciation is heard. At the end of a fixed time, say 
two weeks, note how many times each word is marked, and 
select for intensive drill the one that heads the list from the 
standpoint of frequency. The others may be taken up in 
turn, and the drill on each continued until marked improve- 
ment is noted. 

Speed contests for intensive drill. The teacher pro- 
nounces the word distinctly but without exaggerated effect. 
The pupils pronounce it after her, first as a single word, and 
then in a sentence of the sort that children would naturally 
use. After this, abundant drill should be given, not only for 
establishing a habit of correct pronunciation, but also for 
securing prompt, unhesitating utterance. Here are some use- 
ful drills for the younger children : 


1. Have the pupils, one after the other, pronounce the word, the 
teacher noting how long it takes to go around the class. Tell the 


CORRECT USAGE 95 


children the result, and then try to reduce the time until the children 
pronounce the word literally as fast as they can talk. Each time 
around is a race against previous records, and all children like a race. 
Have them fully understand what they are trying to do, and that 
any mispronunciation is likely to spoil the race. 

2. Following the same general plan as in 1, use a simple sentence 
containing the word. The children try to repeat the sentence as 
promptly as possible without sacrificing absolute accuracy. 

8. Have the children repeat the words and sentences in concert, 
the teacher controlling the speed by beating time with a ruler or 
some other implement, and gradually increasing the speed. 


Games. After a number of words have been used in these 
drills, use games for further drill on the entire group. Here 
are some simple games that young children enjoy: 


1. The fishing game. Draw on the blackboard a large circle for 
a fishpond. Write within the circle the words for drill, using each 
several times. With the pointer for a fishpole, let the children angle. 
A fish is caught if it is correctly pronounced as it is touched with the 
pointer. At the last, erase each word as it is “‘caught,”’ thus leaving 
the pond without occupants. 

For keeping the score, give each child a token of some sort — a 
slip of paper or a short stick — whenever he catches a fish. The 
child who gets the most tokens, wins the game. 

2. The ladder game. Draw a long ladder, putting on each rung 
one of the words for drill. Have the children climb the ladder by 
pointing to the words in their order, beginning at the foot, and pro- 
nouncing them. Give a token to each child who reaches the top 
without making a mistake. Those who make mistakes fall and must 
try again. Give several chances, if necessary. At the last, all who 
reached the top without stumbling, come down one by one, thus 
getting additional drill. 

3. The Jack Horner game. The children enjoy this game because 
it is based on the old and always popular rhyme: 


Little Jack Horner 

Sat in a corner, 

Eating a Christmas pie; 

He put in his thumb 

And drew out a plum, 

And said, ‘What a good boy am I!” 


96 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Draw on the blackboard a very large pie. Fill it with the words 
needing drill, and let the children draw out the plums by touching 
the words with the pointer or a pencil, and pronouncing them. The 
one who gets the most plums, wins the game. 

Should an incorrect pronunciation persist in individual 
cases even after prolonged drill, do not be discouraged. 
Some words will be conquered by all the children, and others 
will be conquered by many. The words remaining uncon- 
quered should be introduced into future drills from time to 
time. After the children begin to keep notebooks, the few 
pupils who still mispronounce a word after much drill should 
continue the struggle as an individual one. 

After many games have been played, try having a pronun- 
ciation match. 

On some part of the blackboard write all the words that have 
been listed for drill. Form two teams, and have the children pro- 
nounce the words by alternating between the teams. Each cor- 
rectly pronounced word wins a point for the team. If a child fails 
to respond promptly, or if he mispronounces a word, thé opposite 
side wins a point. Keep the record on the blackboard where all 
can see it. The team that has the most points at the end of the 
contest wins. 

Some teachers have this game played in the old-fashioned 
spelling-match way, the child failing in any particular going 
to his seat. The team of the last surviving child wins. This 
plan, however, is not a good one for either spelling or pronun- 
ciation, as the pupils most needing the drill are first elimi- 
nated. In the contest described all participate to the end. 

After the children have had considerable drill, certainly 
in the third grade, mispronunciation should never be pointed 
out by the teacher when this game is played. It is the pupils’ 
business to detect errors. The child whose hand first goes up 
wins a point for his team. A scorer may also be chosen from 
the class. Let the children do everything that they possibly 
can. This is the self-help way. 


CORRECT USAGE 97 


It should be added that these games are most successful 
when the groups are comparatively small. In a large class 
no pupil gets enough chances to pronounce to make the contest 
exciting. Groups of eight work well. The groups can play 
successively, or one can play while the rest of the class is 
otherwise engaged. Another good plan is to have one or two 
groups play the game each day at spare moments or during 
the regular drill period. 

The importance of daily drills. Since children are con- 
stantly hearing and using incorrect forms, the corrective drill 
should be a daily exercise. Three minutes in the third and 
fourth grades, and possibly five in the higher grades, will 
accomplish astonishing results. A convenient time should be 
selected for the drill, and nothing be permitted to interfere 
with it. 

In the chapter on self-help activities, it was stated that 
children acquire the bad habit without thought, and that 
therefore the right habit can be acquired in the same way. 
If a child pronounces just correctly fifty times a day for a 
number of days, he is quite likely to pronounce it correctly 
at all times, even if the repetition is somewhat mechanical. 
But without much encouragement, he will not make the nec- 
essary effort to drill himself. His pride should be aroused, 
and every possible motive appealed to for securing conscious 
warfare against his bad habit. His delight in praise, his de- 
sire to please, his satisfaction in success, his social spirit as 
manifested in competitive exercises — all these and many 
other motives may be used to stimulate an earnest struggle 
against bad habits. The whole-hearted codperation of the 
child is absolutely essential. 

It is sometimes urged that the higher-grade pupils do not 
care for language games. Everything depends upon circum- 
stances. A first-year high school class in a large Eastern city 
plays them with an enthusiasm that never wavers, and this is 


98 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


no exceptional case. If the contest is so waged that it con- 
stitutes a genuine game, — that is, a contest in which some 
one wins, and others lose, — there will be little indifference. 
But in any case, the play element should gradually be supple- 
mented by other features. How this may be done is dis- 
cussed in connection with the correct use of words. 

The question is often asked, “‘ Should the pupils, particu- 
larly the younger children, realize that they are playing the 
game for the sake of overcoming language errors?”’ Some 
teachers advocate keeping them in ignorance of the real pur- 
pose of the game, on the assumption that a knowledge of the 
practical value of the exercise will detract from the interest. 
Scores of teachers have proved that this is not the case. 
Does a tennis player take less interest in practicing a weak 
stroke because he knows that gaining proficiency will enable 
him to play the game better? An added argument for 
realization of the purpose of the game lies in the fact that after 
a game has been played, the children should become sensitive 
to the incorrect form whenever they hear it, and this ear- 
sensitiveness should be a matter of conscious cultivation. In 
fact, every genuine self-help activity is stimulated from within 
and is necessarily a conscious process. 

Using the voice in an agreeable manner. Besides enun- 
ciating clearly and pronouncing correctly, the children should 
be taught to use their voices in as pleasant and agreeable a 
manner as possible. Unnecessary loudness, harshness, and 
shrillness, as well as inaudible speech, must gradually be dis- 
placed by pleasant speaking tones, adjusted to the require- 
ments of the room or the group of listeners. Much time may 
be required, but a good example and persistent effort will 
yield results. Good vocal exercises specially designed to 
cultivate well-modulated voices may be found in books and 
pamphlets devoted to the subject. 


CORRECT USAGE 99 


THE CORRECT USE OF WORDS 


Finding the most common errors in the use of words. In 
no part of the English field has more helpful work been done 
than in that of correct usage. Many important studies have 
been made to determine what errors of speech occur most fre- 
quently. Some of these studies are listed on page 119, and 
every teacher should be familiar with their method and 
results. While it is true that the needs of the individual class 
determine what errors must be eliminated, the fact remains 
that the results of the studies referred to are astonishingly 
similar. Certain errors and classes of errors appear in every 
part of the country, and since to be forewarned is to be fore- 
armed, it is important that the teacher be familiar with the 
facts. If she knows in advance that the commonest errors 
are the use of zs for are, was for were, ain’t for isn’t, come for 
came, seen for saw, don’t for doesn’t, and went for gone; the 
misuse of the inflected pronouns; the confusion of adjectives 
and adverbs; the misuse of certain prepositions, and so on, 
she will be more alert to note these errors when she hears 
them, and will make certain that her own speech is not marred 
by any of them. 

The first step, then, is to determine experimentally what 
the most glaring errors are. Do not trust to the memory. 
Keep a small notebook in which you enter all misused words, 
marking each word every time it is heard. At the end of a 
specified time, select the most common error and use exercises 
like the following to correct it. ; 

An illustrative lesson. Suppose that 7s and are are 
habitually confused, or that one or the other is troublesome. 
Begin by placing one book on the table and have the chil- 
dren give the sentence: 


The book is on the table. 


100 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Then place several books in the same position, and have 
this sentence given : 


The books are on the table. 


Ask John to stand very straight, and then ask both John 
and Frank to stand in the same way. This will give the 
sentences : 


John is standing straight. 
John and Frank are standing straight. 


Arrange first one and then several other objects or children 
in various positions and have the pairs of sentences given. 
The children may then take charge of the exercise, making 
the arrangements and requiring other pupils to give the 
appropriate statements. 

When the fact that zs is used in speaking of one person or 
thing, and are is used in speaking of more than one person or 
thing, seems to be comprehended, although not necessarily 
formulated by the youngest children, groups of sentences like 
the following may be written on the blackboard. They 
should be read slowly at first, but later the speed may be 
increased to the normal rapidity of everyday speech. If the 
textbook contains such sentences, these may be used and 
much time will be saved. The children should know when 
the correct-usage drill will take place, and be ready for it 
every day so that no time will be wasted. 


. My dress is torn. 

Our dresses are torn. 

A beaver is a busy worker. 
Beavers are busy workers. 

Six and five are eleven. 

. Which story is your favorite ? 

. What are your favorite stories ? 


SED OR OO 


As a test, after much drill, elliptical sentences may be used. 
The children insert the correct word wherever a blank space 


CORRECT USAGE 101 


occurs. The exercise may be oral or written, the oral testing 
the child’s readiness, and the written testing his accuracy 
when he has time to stop and think. Neither is a substitute 
for daily oral drills. 

It is well to note at this point that not all correct-usage 
drills would be introduced by a lesson like the one described 
in the case of ts and are, because the reason for the selection 
of one form or the other is not always so obvious. It is often 
best to plunge into the drill promptly, merely calling atten- 
tion to the fact that a given form is incorrect. This would be 
the normal course of procedure in attempting to eliminate 
ain’t. 

Individual or concert work. The question of individual or 
concert work in correct-usage drills may arise. Naturally, 
concert work yields the larger number of repetitions in a given 
period of time, but it also increases the difficulty of detecting 
errors. The best plan seems to be to employ the individual 
method, aiming for both precision and normal speech rapidity, 
until the pupils read the sentences correctly. After this there 
may be more concert work. 

What to do with pupils not needing the drill. The question 
of the participation of pupils who do not need the drill is 
an important economic problem. In the lowest grades, it is 
probably best to have all take part. The pupils who do not 
make the particular error should understand that they help 
by making it possible for the others to hear the correct form. 
Or, they may act as critics, trying to detect the slightest 
variation from absolute accuracy. In the higher grades, 
pupils who do not need the drill should be excused from it 
altogether. This will enable them to devote more time to 
some line of work in which they are weak, or to general 
reading. 

Language games designed to secure the correct use of 
words. Language games are very useful for corrective work, 


102 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


particularly in connection with the common verb forms, saw 
and seen, threw and thrown, and the like. Here are some 
suggestions : 

What did you see? The teacher places a number of small 
objects on her desk and covers them. As the children one by 
one step to the desk, the teacher allows them to take a single 
peep under the cover. When all have had their turn, the 
first child tells one thing that he saw. He says, for instance: 


I saw a pencil. 


The next child then tells one thing that he saw. It is 
understood that no object is to be named a second time. 


I saw a knife. 


When no child can recall an object not already mentioned, 
the game is over. The child who kept in the game longest, 
wins. 

What does it do? This is a good game for drilling on the 
correct use of doesn’t. Each child writes on a slip of paper 
the name of an animal, and on another the name of something 
that the animal does. For instance, dog may be written on 
one slip and barks on the other. The animal names are put 
into one box or hat, and the other words into another. Each 
pupil then draws one of each. If the words belong together, 
as lion and roar, the pupil says, The lion roars. If, however, 
as is most likely, they do not belong together, as in the case of 
cat and bark, the pupil says, The cat doesn’t bark. If any pupil 
uses the word don’t for doesn’t, he must pay a forfeit. 
Repeating five doesn’t sentences dictated by members of the 
class makes a good forfeit, but the children should decide the 
matter for themselves. Their shrewdness in imposing suit- 
able forfeits will astonish you. 

The circus game. This game is designed to foster the cor- 
rect use of went and gone, and incidentally gives good practice 
in using correctly may, saw, and at in the phrase at the circus. 


CORRECT USAGE 103 


The circus is supposed to be in the hall, and its wonderful 
sights are limited only by the imagination of the child who 
visits it. The teacher begins : 


John, you may imagine that there is a circus in the hall. You 
may go, and then come back and tell us one thing that you saw. 


After John has taken his departure, the following conver- 
sation takes place: 


Teacher: Mary, where has John gone? 

Mary: John has gone to the circus, 

Teacher: Where is he now? 

Pupil: He is at the circus. (If the pupil says to the circus the 
error is corrected, and the right form repeated.) 


When John returns, the children ask him the following 
questions : 


Where did you go, John? 
What did you see? 


John replies : 


I went to the circus. 
I saw a clown swallow a sword. 


Other children now go, and the same questions are again 
asked, eliciting similar replies. The children become very 
much interested in this game, because they like to vie with 
each other in reporting amazing sights. The child who 
reports the most interesting sight is accounted the winner, 
provided he makes no mistake in answering the questions 
asked him. And while the class have some fun, they also 
have much valuable training in both hearing and using correct 
verb forms. The game should be followed by drill exercises, 
as in the case of is and are. As time goes on, the children 
themselves should prepare the sentences, as suggested on page 
105; or they may read sentences from their language books, 
if these particular errors are treated, even though doing this 


104 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


interferes with the order of lessons in the book. Remember 
always that the book is made for the child, and not the child 
for the book. 

No further games are suggested here, because all modern 
language books contain suitable ones, and a number of books 
devoted entirely to games have been published. Several of 
these are listed on page 119. 

Bear always in mind that itis far more valuable to correct a 
small number of errors absolutely in the course of the school 
year than to attempt the correction of a large number without 
really correcting even one. The correct-usage drill should be 
a purposive activity. The desired result should be avmed at, 
attained, and recognized as having been attained. No child 
will long retain his interest in drills that arrive at the house 
Nowhere. 

If in any school it is found that practically the same mis- 
takes are made throughout the grades, it is a good plan to 
assign certain errors to each grade for intensive drill. This 
plan will not preclude the casual correction of any error made, 
but it will insure system in meeting the needs of the entire 
school. Naturally the commonest mistakes should be as- 
signed to the lower grades. 


THE NEED OF MORE ADVANCED CORRECTIVE ACTIVITIES 


The need of variety. No keen insight is required to appre- 
ciate the need of variety in drills that must go on year after 
year with unfailing zeal if their purpose is to be achieved. 
Interest must be sustained. 

The need of a more mature appeal. As children advance 
in age and intellectual power, the drills of earlier years, even 
though varied, may seem babyish to them and may need to be 
supplemented by activities that appeal to maturer minds. 
The daily drill, resulting in a large number of repetitions of 
the correct form, should continue throughout the course, but 


CORRECT USAGE 105 


other activities should be added, and the pupils should assume 
practically full responsibility for the drills. 

The need of wider social appeal. In addition to more vari- 
ety and an increasing maturity of appeal, a stronger social 
appeal is necessary in order to create an appreciation of the 
relation between the speech of individual and class, and the 
general welfare of the larger community outside the school. 

It is the purpose of this section to suggest feasible activities 
to meet the three needs enumerated. 


METHODS THAT AFFORD VARIETY 


Some ways of securing variety have already been pointed 
out. Here are others: 


1. Use posters like those on pages 106 and 107. If the language 
book used contains them, well and good; but in any case try to in- 
duce the children to make them. The second poster was made by 
a child, and in every school there will be found one or more artists 
who will be only too glad to devote their skill to the weal of the class. 

2. Introduce an imaginative element into the lesson that launches 
the drill on anew form. For instance, if the correct use of saw and 
seen is to be taught preparatory to drill, let the children imagine that 
they found on the seashore, or in some place appropriate to the local- 
ity, a mysterious box. Let each child imagine that on opening the 
box he found a curious object from some distant land. He will then 
tell what he saw. The desire to think of some very wonderful 
object will interest the children, and in the meantime they will have 
abundant practice in hearing “I saw” and some practice in say- 
ing it. This lesson should be followed by three-minute daily drills. 

3. Secure sentences by asking each child to hand in at least one 
good sentence containing the word for drill. These sentences may 
then be written on the blackboard, a few at a time, and used in the 
daily drills. As soon as possible, the children should write the sen- 
tences on the blackboard or on the language bulletin board, if it is 
not otherwise in use. 

4. Let the children report the number of times they heard the 
incorrect form during a fixed period, a week or more. This will 
make their ears sensitive to the incorrect form, and will also con- 
vince them of the need of the drill exercises. 


106 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


‘i fn 
mn 


‘a 


ey ron 
See 


Sele 
Eras! 


US SRY, 
bey 





CORRECT USAGE 107 


MAY GOW 
Py WOR IN aD Or EY, 





This poster was made by a boy nine years old. It expresses his 
notion of the relation of good English to success. 


108 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


5. Let the children try to devise games that can be used in lan- 
guage drills. This is not difficult for some children. The games will 
be very simple, but they will be interesting because they are home- 
made. It should be understood that the game must provide for 
frequent repetition of the correct form. 

6. When certain children give evidence that they have overcome 
a bad habit of speech, excuse them from the drill exercises, allowing 
them to use the time for other purposes. Such children might get 
together in a convenient part of the room, and softly read to each 
other the sentences containing the words that they actually misuse. 


METHODS THAT MAKE A MORE MATURE APPEAL 


The language drive. The following lesson is taken from 
a textbook. It is used both to show how the language drive 
would be handled with material provided in a textbook, and 
to suggest to teachers how to plan the drive with young 
children when no book is available.. 


A LANGUAGE DRIVE 


Did you ever hear of people having a drive to raise 
money for the Red Cross, or to get members for the Boy 
Scouts, or for some other important work? 

Today you will begin a drive to get rid of the word 
ain't. Many children — and some grown-ups, too — 
use it instead of 2s not or isn’t, are not or aren’t, or am not. 

Read the following sentences rapidly several times: 


It isn’t raining hard today. 

. The book isn’t interesting. 

It isn’t time to go home. 

. Our baby isn’t a year old yet. 
My pencil isn’t sharp. 

My sister isn’t as tall as I am. 
Isn’t autumn a pleasant season ! 
The Eskimo isn’t afraid of bears. 
Isn’t your work finished ? 


ape Se 


CORRECT USAGE 109 






% 


a RY) 


May, 






What word do you use instead of is when speaking of 
more than one person or thing? 


1. We are not going to play ball. 
The seeds are not up yet. 
Perhaps they are not good. 

Why aren’t the windows open? 
We are not going to write today. 
The nuts aren’t ripe yet. 

You aren’t as old as I am. 


el pili ee el a 


Use the sentences in your three-minute drills for a few 
days, and also the following groups of words: 


T am not She is not We are not They aren’t 
You are not It is not We aren’t You aren’t 
He is not It isn’t They are not He isn’t 


Should it happen that no children in your class use the 
word ain’t, so much the better. In that case choose some 
wrong form that is used, and carry on the drive. 


MakINnG THE DRIvE SUCCESSFUL 


When we try to break up a bad language habit, such as 
using a wrong word, it is not enough to use the correct 


110 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


form in the language period. In your number lessons 
you have learned that seven and eight are fifteen. Of 
what use would this fact be to you if outside of school 
you said that seven and eight are fourteen? It is just 
the same with language lessons. We learn the correct 
form in the language lesson so that we may always use it, 
in school and out of school. 


Tram Work 


Divide the school into two teams. Be sure that each 
team has a fair share of the children who do not often 
make the mistake you are fighting. 

Keep a score on the blackboard. Each time a pupil is 
heard to use the word you are trying to drive out of the 
language, put a mark against the team of which he is a 
member. While the drive is going on, perhaps your 
teacher will allow you to correct this mistake whenever 
you hear it, no matter what work is being done. At the 
end of the week, erase the marks, give a star to the win- 
ning team, and start again. 

Try to help your team in every possible way. What 
is the most important way in which you can help? If 
you hear any member of your team use the wrong word 
outside of school, call his attention to the error in a polite 
way. Remember that you are playing a game, and each 
one must do everything he can to help his side win. Try 
to train your ears so that the wrong word will sound 
very unpleasant to you. 


Home Work 


Ask your parents to help by correcting you when you 
use the wrong word at home. Perhaps you can all try 
together to drive ain’t out of the language, but do not cor- 
rect any one who is not playing the game with you. 


CORRECT USAGE 111 


A LANGUAGE GAME 


CoLoRs 


One child selects a color. The others try to guess 
what it is by asking questions. If the color blue were 
chosen, for instance, the following questions and answers 
might be used : 

I am thinking of a color. 

Is it the color of Mary’s dress? 

No, it isn’t red. 

Is it the color of the crayon? 

No, it isn’t white. 

Is it the color of the sky? 


This is the right color, and instead of answering, the 
child who selected the color claps his hands. The one 
who guessed the color now chooses another, and the game 
goes on. 

Play the game rapidly. Any children who use the 
word you are fighting against must pay a forfeit at the 
end of the game. Repeating five isn’t sentences given 
by the class makes a good forfeit. 


The lesson analyzed. Note that the series of lessons con- 
cerned with the drive first of all explains to the child what a 
drive is; then it motivates the drive, gives a cartoon that will 
tend to fix the motive of the drive in the mind, and provides 
sentences for immediate drill. Next follow suggestions for 
the daily drills, and provision for the substitution of some 
other error if ain’t is not used in the class. Then follows a 
discussion regarding the general method of forming a habit, 
and directions for team work, thus making the drive a truly 
social experience, each pupil giving help and getting help. 
The coédperation of the home is then provided for, and lastly is 
given a game that will help to develop the habit of using the 
correct form. 


112 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


The lesson might be studied from the book in various ways, 
but here is one way that is feasible and helpful. In assigning 
the lesson, — or, in this case, preparing for the drive, — go 
over the lesson rapidly with the pupils, letting them discover 
just what the text discusses and suggests. Then assign to 
groups of children the following topics: 


What a language drive is 

The meaning of the picture 

The importance of practice sentences 
How to form a language habit 

A plan for team work 

Home work 

A useful game 


It will be the function of each group of pupils to study 
thoroughly the topic assigned to it and come to class prepared 
to help organize a drive. They should be prepared to suggest 
variations of the book plan, if they think it can be improved, 
and make any additional suggestions that occur to them. 
The class will then plan the drive, the children taking the lead 
in all discussion. ‘The teacher should be ready to help steer 
when this is necessary to prevent waste of time, but she should 
allow the pupils to make their own plans. She will be aston- 
ished to find how competent they are. For instance, the 
group reporting on the game should be able, without referring 
to the book, to explain to the class just how they are to play 
it, and see that it is played in accordance with the rules. Do 
you see what excellent practice in silent reading and in inter- 
pretation the study of this lesson will give? 

Drives in higher grades. In higher grades the drive may 
be made much more complex. Instead of selecting one error 
to be conquered in the drive, the pupils discover for them- 
selves what errors are made most frequently in the class. 
Tags may be used, each child wearing a bunch. When an 
error is made, the correct form is written on one of the tags, 


CORRECT USAGE 113 


and the tag is surrendered to a committee and preserved by 
them as a record of the mistake. After a week or two, the 
committee count the number of times each error was reported 
and the class decide just what errors will be selected for the 
drive. Two or more teams may be formed and the record of 
each kept. 

Another way is to have a Good-English Week, when the 
principal work of the school is to correct a few selected errors. 
Any pupil caught using one of the wrong forms during 
the week is tagged, or perhaps posted on the blackboard. At 
the end of the week a program may be arranged. Simple 
posters may be made by the children, slogans prepared, and 
rhymes written. Anything that will lend enthusiasm will be 
valuable. Some classes invite a prominent member of the 
community to attend the exercises and give a talk on the 
value of good English. Here, again, it is astonishing to find 
how much ability to plan and direct the pupils develop. 
Incidentally, the English practice involved in making the 
plans is of the greatest worth. 

Here is a rhyme written by a fifth-grade boy: 

I’m trying so hard 

I should soon be a saint, 
If I weren’t hindered 

By the little word “‘ain’t.” 

When the excitement is over, it is important that the chil- 
dren should not be allowed to feel that the work is finished. 
Try to arouse a spirit that will desire to make permanent the 
improvement noted during Good-English Week. 

Getting rid of incorrect forms. Some children enjoy writ- 
ing on slips of paper the words that are misused in the class, 
and then disposing of them by a ceremony — burying them, 
sealing them up in a bottle, or banishing them in other ways. 
It is understood that any use of one of theseforms means that it 
has been released from its grave or other place of confinement. 


114 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Relating the drive against incorrect forms to literature. 
In the higher grades, the pupils will enjoy making connections 
with literature. For instance, after reading the story of 
King Arthur, they will be interested in contests between the 
Good-English Knights and the Poor-English Knights. Or, 
they will enjoy imagining that the wrong forms are the rats 
that the Pied Piper lured from their homes and banished per- 
manently. Anything that tends to make the struggle against 
incorrect English a genuine and an interesting one is of value. 
When the drive has been started, the pupils themselves will 
invent ways of carrying it on. 


METHODS THAT MAKE A WIDER SOCIAL APPEAL 


Parent-teacher associations. The school exists for the 
common weal. Through parent-teacher associations the home 
and the school are now consciously sharing the responsibility 
of training the children. Much has been done outside 
the school to stimulate the use of better English everywhere, 
and the effect of this common effort upon the pupil is valu- 
able, because it emphasizes the fact that one purpose of using 
good English is to build up a more effective community life. 
While in a majority of places the high school has been most 
closely associated with the community observance of “‘ Ameri- 
can Speech Week,”’ the elementary school isabundantly able 
to enter intelligently and enthusiastically into the project. 
If a teacher is interested in starting the movement in her com- 
munity, she should by all means secure a copy of “ Guide to 
American Speech Week,” Edition of 1921. It is published 
by the National Council of Teachers of English, at 506 
West 69th Street, Chicago, Illinois, and costs twenty-five 
cents. 

In this, as in all similar activities, see that the purpose of 
developing better English is kept constantly in view. Noth- 
ing should be done for its own sake or merely for the pleasure 


CORRECT USAGE 115 


involved. Results should be expected, and these results will 
be of lasting worth. 

Arousing a general community interest in the schools. 
Through the daily press, or, in small communities, through 
personal contact with business men and others who have, or 
should have, an interest in the schools they support, teachers 
can do much by stimulating criticism and suggestion. The 
principal of a grammar school in a moderate-sized town once 
asked a merchant friend if he had any practical suggestions 
to make regarding the public school. The merchant imme- 
diately asked, “What are you teaching your graduating 
class?”? It happened that one of the star members of the 
class was accustomed to visit the store of the merchant in 
quest of fashion papers that were issued monthly. Her 
invariable question was, “Is the fashion papers came yet?” 
And yet the girl could pass a difficult examination in techni- 
cal grammar. She had never been trained, however, to con- 
sider that the rules of grammar are useless unless they are 
applied. If the principal profited by the criticism of the 
merchant, there must certainly have been a revolution in the 
English methods of that particular school. 

The relation of grammar to correct usage. With the excep- 
tion of the chance allusion to grammar in the preceding para- 
graph, nothing has been said in this chapter concerning the help 
that it may afford in mastering the correct use of words. While 
its value may easily be exaggerated, it serves a very distinct pur- 
pose which is discussed in a later chapter. Consult the Index. 


MISCELLANEOUS CORRECT-SPEECH PROBLEMS 


Another social aspect of speech problems. It is a well- 
known fact that children sometimes hesitate to use certain 
correct forms because so common and popular is the incor- 
rect form that any attempt to abandon it is considered an 
evidence of snobbishness, or, in the child vernacular, of being 


116 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


oe Ns stuck-up.”’ A boy belonging to a cultured family said to 
his mother one day, “‘ The boys laughed at me today for say- 
ing, ‘We boys need new uniforms.’ I think they’d run me 
off the ball field if I ever said it again; so hereafter I think 
I’ll say ‘ us boys ’ when I’m with the club, and say ‘ we boys ’” 
when I’m anywhere else.” 

This tendency to conform to the habits of the group is but 
another manifestation of the gang spirit that is so strong 
among children at a certain period of their lives. It is as 
interesting as it is amusing, and need cause no anxiety to any 
one concerned. It disappears with many other childish 
habits, and in the meantime it is important for the knowledge 
of the correct form to be so thoroughly ingrained in the mind 
that it will be used when the ideals change and the ambition 
to speak good English is thoroughly aroused by either practi- 
cal or sesthetic considerations. 

Slang. Theoretically most people disapprove of slang, 
but the effort to banish it altogether would probably be as 
hopeless as it might be undesirable. It is a good plan to take 
the children into your confidence in this matter and show 
them that there are two classes of slang words. There are 
expressive words that add vigor to our language, and eventu- 
ally win a place for themselves. Such words are mob, chum, 
blizzard, skyscraper, quiz. ‘These words were at first regarded 
as slang, but they became standard because they were useful 
and had no exact equivalent. There is little doubt that our 
language will continue to be enriched in this way as a clever 
person now and then coins a word that is really needed. 

The second class of slang words contains the expressions 
that are wholly objectionable. They appear year after year, 
serve for a time, and then give place to a new crop. Such 
words are guy, applied to a person; swell, used to describe 
everything from a toy to a mansion; and gee as an expression 
of every emotion to which the mind of man is subject. 


; f ” 
'A 8 a \ 


“ 


CORRECT USAGE ~ 9. 417: 


Little will be gained by lecturing the class and telling them 
that they must not use the expressions. The practical plan 
is to help them to see that the use of these expressions indicates 
a vocabulary so narrow that it is inadequate to the demands 
of everyday life. Select the most objectionable slang expres- 
sions that happen to be current in the community, and write 


on the blackboard standard words that better express the ° 


idea behind the slang. Contrast sentences containing the 
slang expression and the same sentences containing strong, 
forcible words. Keep this up, striving to overcome the evil 
by building up a vocabulary that will gradually displace the 
slang. 

In the higher grades a valuable study in synonyms grows 
naturally out of the attempt to banish objectionable slang. 
Let the pupils take their dictionaries and see how many legiti- 


mate words they can find that will serve instead of the slang” : 


expressions. They will be astonished to discover in this way 
how rich our language is, and how absurd is the habit of using 
meaningless words when standard words full of suggestion 
are available. 

It may be well also to ask the pupils to name present-day 
slang words that may sometime become standard. Probably 
some of the boys will eagerly defend some of the slang expres- 
sions of the ball field. In any case, the exercise will prove 
valuable if it helps the pupils to discriminate between the 
really expressive and the wholly objectionable types of slang 
words. 

Above all, have the pupils appreciate the fact that good 
English is a valuable asset in both the social and the business 
worlds, and that it is much easier to break bad habits in 
youth than when they have become firmly established by 
the practice of many years. Help them appreciate also 
that the struggle against the slang habit must be waged with 
Batata gtion. and, that it must me waged by the individual. 


118 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


He may get inspiration and encouragement from others, but 
the battle is his own. No one can win the victory for him. 


> 
Re. ty 


For TuHoucut AND DIscussion 


1. Which of your present pupils have speech defects? Have you 
conferred with their parents in an effort to secure for them profes- 
sional treatment ? 

2. Which of your pupils have bad speech habits? Which of 
these habits are general enough to warrant class drill? What pro- 
vision will you make for overcoming the bad speech habits of indi- 
viduals ? 

3. If you have not already done so, devote several weeks to list- 
ing the errors of enunciation, pronunciation, and use of words made 
in your class. Have the children help you. Then plan carefully a 
campaign of eradication. 

4. What will be the inevitable effect upon your pupils if you begin 


“a campaign against a given type of error and drop it before results 


are achieved ? 

5. What will be the inevitable effect upon your pupils if you begin 
a campaign in so interesting a way that enthusiasm is aroused and 
then allow the interest to wane? 

6. Have you a parent-teacher association in your community 
even though you teach ina one-room school? What can you do 
to arouse community interest in cultivating good-English habits 
through the children themselves? through the parents? through the 
editors of local papers ? 

7. The Diebel-Sears study listed below states that one of the 
three most frequent causes of error was found to be carelessness. 
How is it in your school? Can you escape responsibility for careless 
habits? What can you do to help the pupils to overcome careless 
habits ? 


For READING AND StuDY 
SPEECH DEFECTS 


ScrIPTURE-JACKSON. Correction of Speech Defects. F. A. Davis 
Company. (Contains many practical exercises.) 

Swirt. Speech Defects and How to Treat Them. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. (Analyzes difficulties and suggests remedies.) 


CORRECT USAGE 119 


GAMES 


Cuarters-Paunt. Games and Other Devices for Improving Pupils’ 
English. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. C. 

Demine. Games for All Grades. Beckley-Cardy Company. 

Kina. Language Games. Educational Publishing Company. 

Manoney. Standards in English. World Book Company. (This 
book devotes a section to games that have been tested in the 
classroom. ) 

Younc-Memmort. Methods in Elementary English. D. Appleton 
& Co. 


STUDIES FOR DISCOVERING COMMON ERRORS OF USAGE 


Betz-Marsuauu. ‘A Study of Conditions in Kansas City.” The 
English Journal, June, 1916. 

CuartTers. ‘Minimal Essentials in Language and Grammar.” 
Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
tion, Part I. (This article will prove very helpful, because 1t sum- 
marizes several studies, all of which were so carefully made that 
the results are reliable.) 

Cuarters-Miiuer. “A Course of Study Based upon the Grammar 
Errors of School Children.’’ Education Bulletin No. 91, Uni- 
versity of Missouri. 

Diepet-Sears. ‘A Study of the Common Mistakes in Pupils’ 
English.”” Elementary School Journal, September, 1916. 

Meek. “Special Report of the Boise Public Schools.” June, 1915. 

Moore. Parent, Teacher, and School. The Macmillan Company. 
(Chapter IIT deals with parent-teacher associations.) 


HABIT FORMATION 
JamMES. Psychology: Briefer Course. Henry Holt & Co. (The 


chapter on habit in this book, though written many years ago, is 
still perhaps the best discussion published of the psychology of 
habit formation. See also Talks to Teachers by the same author.) 

Srrayver-Norswortuy. How to Teach. Chapter IV, ‘The For- 
mation of Habits.” The Macmillan Company. 


Read all that you find on habit formation in any books on teaching 
that you have at hand. 


CHAPTER SIX 


OraL LANGUAGE LESSONS IN THE THIRD AND FourtTH 
GRADES 


INTRODUCTION 


How to use this chapter and Chapter Seven. It is sug- 
gested that the teacher who wishes to make a somewhat 
thorough study of the composition work of grades three and 
four take the following steps : 


1. Read this chapter and Chapter Seven at a sitting in order to 
have clearly in mind the ground that they cover. 

2. Review Chapter Two, because it deals with foundation les- 
sons. 

3. Review Chapters Three, Four, and Five and select for more 
thorough study whatever relates to activities that are needed to 
round out the language work of the third and fourth grades. 

4. Read Chapter Eight in order to know what is to be built on 
the foundation laid in grades three and four. 

5. Study Chapter Ten in order to utilize every opportunity for 
indirect language teaching. Give special attention to the art of 
questioning and to projects. 

6. Study Chapter Eleven to learn how to use suitable tests and 
measurements in an effective way, and to train the pupils to use 
them. 

7. Study again this chapter and Chapter Seven, and then make 
an outline that will include every topic concerned with the English 
of grades three and four. It may be well to include in this outline 
reading and literature, although these subjects are not treated in this 


book. 


The purpose of oral-language lessons. In their out-of- 
school life, the pupils of third- or fourth-grade age engage in 
conversation with members of their families, with playmates, 
with clerks in stores when doing errands, and so on. They 
ask and answer questions. They sometimes talk at consider- 


able length about the things that interest them: they narrate 
120 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 121 


experiences; they describe things that they have seen or 
things that they desire to own; they explain in a simple way 
how they are planning to make or to do something; they try 
to win other persons to their own point of view, not altogether 
by teasing, but often by advancing plausible arguments. In 
short, they converse; they ask questions; they use narration, 
description, explanation, and argument. This is all that an 
adult ever does. The school, therefore, is not concerned with 
introducing new forms of language expression, but only with 
training in the more correct and the more effective use of those 
already employed. It is the function of the oral-language 
lesson to develop an improved technique that can be employed 
whenever language 1s used, whether in school or out of school. 
In this aim lies the only justification for oral-language lessons 
somewhat apart from the other subjects of instruction. 

The meaning of the word “ composition.”’ ‘The term com- 
position, as has already been pointed out, may include any 
expression of thought in words. For convenience, however, 
it is here limited to the expression of more or less original ideas 
in several related sentences. This leaves reproduction, in- 
formal conversation, and dramatization to be considered later. 


DEVELOPING A SENTENCE SENSE 


Importance of the sentence sense. In all composition the 
sentence is the unit of expression. For this reason, the effort 
to master the sentence pervades all English work from the low- 
est to the highest grades. The foundation is laid in the first 
and second grades, but in those grades little is said about the 
sentence. In the third grade the struggle with the sentence 
should become a more conscious one. 

A foundation drill. Exercises like the following are very 
useful, and the children enjoy them. The method is that of 
contrast, a method that always makes a strong appeal. 
Whenever possible, use stories actually told by children in the 


122 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


run-on form. If no such stories are told, the exercise is, of 
course, unnecessary. 

Let us imagine that the first of the following stories was 
told by a pupil, and that both forms were written on the 
blackboard : 

One day our baby found a knife on the table and he thought it 


would be fun to play with it so he took it and cut his finger and now 
he lets knives alone. 


One day our baby found a knife on the table. He thought it 
would be fun to play withit. He tookit and cut his finger. Now he 
lets knives alone. 

On reading both compositions, the children will quickly dis- 
cover that they tell the same story. When asked which was 
easier to read and to understand, a large majority will select 
the second. Then let them find out why the second form is 
better than the first. Ask them what the first thought is. 
They will readily see that it is One day our baby found a knife 
on the table. Then call their attention to the fact that in the 
second story this thought has a sentence all to itself. Do not 
discuss the meaning of the word sentence, but use it. Ask 
them for the next thought, and let them discover that this 
thought too has a sentence of its own. Follow the same plan 
with the remaining sentences, helping them to see that the 
third sentence contains two thoughts, and to understand why 
it is right to put them into one sentence. Make it plain that 
the trouble with the first story is that all the thoughts are strung 
together into one long sentence. 

Let the children look in their readers and see if the thoughts 
are expressed in comparatively short sentences or if they are 
combined into very long sentences. Then let them read the 
second story once more and see if the voice showed where 
each sentence ended. Call attention to the way in which the 
teacher used capitals and periods to show where each sentence 
began and ended. This helps to establish a relation between 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 123 


punctuation in written composition and the use of the voice in 
oral composition. 

The case of the word “and.” The case of the word and 
may well be considered here. Many good teachers try to 
cultivate a sentence sense by training the children to avoid 
and’s in their own stories and to listen for them when others 
are telling stories. But many other good teachers repudiate 
this procedure, and their position is well fortified. When a 
class is habitually told to notice if many and’s are used in a 
story, the attention is diverted from an essential to a detail. 
The error lies not in using and, a very useful word in its place, 
but in not, as a rule, expressing each thought in a short, clear 
sentence of its own. Since the child is trying to think and to 
use sentences in an effective way, does it not seem wise to empha- 
size the thought and the sentence instead of directing his atten- 
tion too frequently to the inoffensive and ? Superfluous and’s 
are driven out automatically when the thought and the sen- 
tence are emphasized in criticism. 

An individual sentence-sense device. It often happens 
that a child may appreciate the desirability of talking in short, 
clear sentences, and yet find it very difficult to overcome a 
long-established habit of joining his thoughts. In sucha 
case it often helps to allow the pupil to finish his story in his 
own way, and then ask him to begin again, but to give only 
the first thought and then to stop. This is not difficult, and 
he may be led to give each succeeding thought in the same 
way. If the teacher writes the sentences on the blackboard 
as they are given, the pupil may at the last read his story, 
see that it is told in short sentences, and realize that his voice 
showed where each sentence ended just as the periods show 
it on the blackboard. The pupil should then be encouraged 
to think out his next story in the same way, sentence by sen- 
tence, and tell it so in class. It may be necessary to repeat 
this or similar exercises over and over again, but it well re- 


‘ 
: 


124 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH, y 


pays the time it takes, particularly if the rest of the class are 


kept on the alert to help whenever they can. Usually a \ 


number of pupils need the same kind of help, and all will 
profit by the exercise, either as fellow learners or as critics 
and helpers. Jt is primarily an exercise in clear thinking. 
Why compositions should be short. Not only in the third 
and the fourth grades, but throughout the elementary school, 
compositions should be short. In these lower grades, for the 
following reasons, they should as a rule not exceed five or six 
sentences in length; but the children should not be strictly 
limited as far as the number of sentences is concerned. 


1. In most situations, people talk in sentences or in short para- 
graphs. Few make speeches, and in any case a speech is made up of 
numerous paragraphs, each of which is in itself a composition pre- 
senting one phase of the subject being considered. 

2. The short composition makes it possible for the child carefully 
to think out his subject and consciously to apply all that has been 
taught. 

3. The short composition is the best possible preparation for 
paragraph work, because it is limited to one phase of a subject. 

4. The short composition makes criticism easier, since the lis- 
teners can readily keep the whole in mind, and thus conveniently 
note its outstanding excellences and defects. 

5. The short composition affords the best means for reducing 
diffusive prattling to well-ordered speech. It requires the garrulous 
pupil to curb himself in two ways — by choosing a narrow subject, 
and by holding strictly to it. 

6. The short composition makes it possible for a large number of 
pupils to take part during the recitation period. 


LEARNING TO TELL CLASS STORIES 


A lesson in class story-telling. The class composition 
affords an invaluable means for conversation and for gaining 
help in wholly original composition. Read once more the 
second-grade lesson beginning on page 22. The method in 
the third grade will not be very different, but more may be 
expected of the pupils. They will think more clearly, and 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 125 


the effort to express their thoughts in good sentences will be 
more consciously made. 

Review also the lesson beginning on page 54, relating to 
limiting the subject. Then study the following lesson taken 
from a textbook. 


TELLING A CLASS STORY 


The following story was told at school by a boy of 
about your age: 


Last Saturday I went to the circus. I saw lions, bears, mon- 
keys, and evena pig. Theclown was very funny. I saw a dog 
pushing a doll carriage. I saw a dozen other things. 


Talk over this story in class. Be sure to say just what 
you think about it, no matter what others may say. 

In what respect is the story welltold? Isit interesting 
or not, and why? Did the boy try to tell all about the 
circus, or did he choose one interesting thing to tell 
about? Explain how a child might tell this story with- 
out going to the circus at all. Does the last sentence 
help you to see the “dozen other things”’ ? 

What interesting thing is mentioned that would make 
a good story? For the remainder of the period you may 
tell a make-believe story about a dog pushing a doll car- 
riage. This will be team work. Each child will help 
make a good story, just as the members of a ball team 
help win the game. 

Make the story a lively one. What was in the car- 
riage? Did the dog walk all the way? If he ran, what 
happened ? 

When you have decided these matters, several children 
may give a beginning sentence. Choose the best one for 
the teacher to write on the blackboard. Build the rest 
of the story sentence by sentence. 

When the story is finished, read it aloud and see if it 
can be improved. 


126 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


TEACHING THE LESSON 


The lesson begins with all books open. 


_ Teacher: Today the book is to be our teacher. The title of the 
lesson tells us what we are going to do. What is it? 

Pupil: We are going to tell a class story. 

Teacher: Read the first three paragraphs silently, and when you 
understand them, take your eyes off your books. 

(The children read, and when the majority have finished, the 
lesson is continued.) 

Teacher: The book tells us a story. What is it about? 

Pupil: It is about the circus. 

Teacher: Who first told the story ? 

Pupil: A boy told it. 

Teacher: Was he an eighth-grade boy? 

Pupil: No, Miss French, he was a boy just as old as we are. 

Teacher: Then we certainly must tell a story just as good as his. 
Or shall we try to tell a better one? 

(The pupils nod, or otherwise respond, indicating their desire to 
improve on the book story.) 

Teacher: Why do you think the book gives a story to start with? 

Pupil: It wants to help us. 

Pupil: It wants to show us how. 

Pupil: It wants us to tell a better story. 

Teacher: I think that is just it. And if we are to tell a better 
story, we must learn all we can about this one. We will study it 
now. In the next paragraph are some questions. Read the first 
one silently, and be ready to answer it. Say exactly what you 
think. 


When the lesson has been introduced as suggested, or in 
some equally effective manner, have the pupils answer the 
book questions and respond to the suggestions. 

By way of variety, the teacher may ask one child to read the 
questions and to call upon another child to answer them. 
Note that the first question calls for what is good in the story. 
This helps establish a habit of criticism that needs cultivation. 
If the class have given constant attention to telling their 
stories in clear sentences, the children will inevitably discover 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 127 


that this story is told in short, clear sentences. The next 
question will elicit a variety of replies. Some will think that 
the story as it stands is very interesting, for even the 
suggestion of interesting things pleases many children. The 
adult finds such a list of things colorless. After a good deal 
of training in limiting the subject to a single phase, many 
children will agree with the adult, but some will not agree. 
The child is not the adult. Let a large number express their 
views, and treat all opinions with equal respect. The child 
has a right to his opinion, and must be encouraged to express 
it honestly, no matter what his classmates think. If it is 
unreliable, time and training will help to modify it. 

The teacher will readily see that the question, “ Did the 
boy try to tell all about the circus, or did he choose one inter- 
esting thing to tell about ?”’ strikes at the heart of the lesson. 
The pupils at this stage will already have had more or less 
conscious training in telling what has been aptly named the 
** one-phase story,” and will quickly appreciate the difference 
between giving a list of things seen at a circus and telling an 
interesting story about one thing that was seen. . 

The direction, “‘ Explain how a child might tell this story 
without going to a circus at all,’’ may trouble some children. 
If it does, inquire what children have never been to a circus. 
Then ask some of these children what things they know are 
always to be seen at acircus. They will think of some about 
which they have heard — clowns, animals, and the like. 
Then tell them that when trying to interest some one ina 
circus, it is a good plan to choose a story that one could tell 
only after actually going to the circus. Such a story will be 
more interesting because it is more likely to be unfamiliar. 

The fifth paragraph tells what is to be done during the 
remainder of the class period. Let the children read the 
paragraph either aloud or silently, preferably the latter. 
They will then state in their own words what it is they are to 


128 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


do, and also what they have learned about story-telling that 
will help them. 

Note that the book next makes a few suggestions for the 
sake of stimulating the imagination of the pupils. Let a 
number of children suggest answers to these questions, and 
then agree upon the suggestion that they consider will make 
the best story. 

The teacher might then step to the blackboard and say, 
“‘ The book tells us exactly how we are to tell this class story. 
What shall we do first?”’ Several give beginning sentences, 
and the favorite one is chosen to begin the story. The next 
sentence will be given in the same way, and so on. The 
teacher should accept unquestioningly the sentence that the 
majority select. 

At the last, the children read the final direction and carry 
out its suggestion. In searching for ways of improving the 
story, they should be led to think of its interest, the sentences, 
and the words used. Often, after a story has been finished, 
a better word will occur to a child than the one first used. 
This is self-help vocabulary work. 

The class story, rightly developed, offers rich opportunity 
for a socialized recitation, for it involves the free expression 
of opinion, the weighing of suggestions and the choice of the 
best, the asking and answering of questions, and the codpera- 
tive carrying out of a simple class project. In addition, it 
affords the best possible means of training the children to 
prepare good original stories. It should be used freely when- 
ever a new phase of story-telling is introduced, in order to 
give a vivid impression of the new feature and to set up a 
standard that will serve as a guide. 


TELLING INDIVIDUAL STORIES 


How to conduct a lesson in individual story-telling. In 
order that they may prepare themselves for the exercise, the 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 129 


children should be told in advance that they are to tell stories 
to interest their classmates. Discourage committing the 
story to memory, but train the pupils to make sure of the 
first sentence, and to think out the entire story. With a care- 
fully chosen first sentence to point the way, the ideas will 
follow each other in their natural order, if the thinking has 
been properly done. 

When the time comes for telling the stories, it is a good plan 
to call first on some child who is usually ready with a good 
story, or to call for volunteers. This will insure a good 
example at the outset. Have the children understand that 
all are to be busy every moment either as story-tellers or as 
listeners. The listeners are the critics, and should be ready 
to tell what is good about the story told and what might be 
improved, limiting themselves to the matters that have been 
carefully taught. At the opening of the third year, it is prob- 
ably enough for them to tell if the story was interesting, if it 
was told in clear sentences, and if the speaker’s voice showed 
where the sentences ended. The teacher may commend inci- 
dentally matters to be taught later, — good opening sentences, 
for instance, — but the criticism of the children should be 
strictly limited to the special aims set before them. Review 
the section dealing with criticism, on page 68. 


CAUTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 


Simple as is the type of composition considered, the lessons 
will not always proceed smoothly. Some of the difficulties 
that will be encountered and their remedies are discussed in 
this section, and some general suggestions are made. 


1. As pointed out in dealing with second-grade story-telling, 
many children will think that they have nothing to talk about. 
Such children must be encouraged to use their eyes and their ears, 
and to discover the interest that lurks in the commonest things and 
the most everyday heppenings. The more the teacher knows about 


130 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


the pupil, — his temperament, his likes and dislikes, his sense of 
humor, his home surroundings, — the easier it will be for her to put 
him on the trail of worth-while material. 

2. Some children will not be prepared when the story-telling 
hour arrives. ‘Treat this first of all as a social matter. If the pupil 
is to enjoy the stories of the other pupils, he must be ready to con- 
tribute his share to the common good. If a pupil is deaf to this type 
of appeal, it is a good plan to name a time, perhaps just before school 
closes, when he will be asked to tell a story. In school, as in the 
home, the individual soon discovers the folly of postponing a task 
when he realizes that there is no escape from its performance. 

3. Children sometimes lose interest in the story-telling, particu- 
larly when time is taken for the correction of errors. ‘The remedy 
lies in destroying once for all the feeling that the individual’s duty is 
performed when he has told his story. The story-telling period is a 
time when each pupil is busy all the time, either as a story-teller or as 
acritic. Try to cultivate the feeling that criticism is helpfulness. It 
is impossible to help in this way without giving close attention to 
the story. 

4. Since it is not always possible for every pupil to tell a story 
in each lesson period, various devices may be employed to insure 
preparation by each pupil. 

a. If possible, sometimes supplement the class period by a few 
minutes taken from the time devoted to opening exercises or a few 
minutes at the close of school, thus giving each pupil an opportunity 
to tell his story. 

b. Sometimes ask at the beginning of a period how many pupils 
are ready with their stories. If any are not, excuse them from the 
class in order to give them time to think out a story. 

c. Sometimes ask each pupil at the beginning of a period to give 
the first sentence of his story. When this is done, the children 
choose which story they would like to hear first, second, and so on. 

d. After the children have had much supervised training in writ- 
ing stories, a few may each day be asked to write their stories while 
the remainder of the class is engaged in oral story-telling. Some use 
should invariably be made of these written stories. Hanging them 
up for observation is a good device both to secure careful work and 
to provide material for discussion during a written-story period. 

5. Errors will be made, and these errors must in some way be 
corrected unless they are of the sort that time will eventually over- 
come. The child should never be interrupted in the telling of his 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 131 


story. When it is finished, his classmates will act as critics, the 
teacher touching upon matters overlooked. Important errors of 
usage should be corrected, and then listed by the teacher for special 
drill during the period devoted to corrective work. 

6. Keep always in mind the fact that the composition lesson finds 
its justification in the help it affords in using good English at all 
times. Have the children appreciate that what they learn in the 
composition class is to be applied whenever they talk. The prob- 
lem of correcting the English in all recitations is a serious one, 
since it often interferes with the line of thought that is being fol- 
lowed. A good rule is to correct every flagrant error quickly in 
passing, and to select one other period each day when the English 
will be scrutinized as closely as in the composition period. This 
plan lays no great burden upon any one subject, and serves to 
further the purpose for which English is being taught. 

7. Plan always for vocabulary growth. Keep the language 
simple, but have it increasingly exact and forceful. It is not enough 
to suggest better words for those that are used. Opportunities for 
securing vocabulary expansion must be anticipated and utilized. 
During the discussion that often precedes composition lessons, it is 
a good plan to write on the blackboard helpful words that will be 
needed, and have the pupils employ them instead of the less effective 
words they otherwise would use. The forceful expression of the new 
ideas resulting from increased thought power demands a constantly 
expanding vocabulary in which to clothe the ideas. 

8. Have much free discussion. It should be remembered that 
the discussion incident to projects of all sorts affords a rich oppor- 
tunity for applying the skill gained in the composition class, and for 
stimulating the active thought processes that alone provide ideas 
worth expressing. Read once more the section on ‘‘ Informal Con- 
versation”’ beginning on page 12, and study thoughtfully Chapter 
Ten. 


TELLING STORIES FROM PICTURES 


Learning to read pictures. Review thoroughly the picture- 
story lesson beginning on page 22. The method used may be 
followed in the third and fourth grades, with such modifi- 
cations as the increased power of the children may require. 
It is of the greatest importance that the pupils realize that 
a picture is to be read just as a word-story is. The best 


1382 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


pictures to use suggest a one-phase story, the details being 
limited to those that contribute to this story. 

In the third and fourth grades it is a good plan sometimes 
to call for stories from a picture without previous class prepa- 
ration, thus testing the power to read the picture. The pic- 
tures should be of two classes, as illustrated by those on the 
following pages. 

The picture that clearly tellsa story. The first of the pic- 
tures tells its story plainly, leaving little to the imagination. 
It is the pupil’s task to translate the story into words, and in 
doing this he will naturally apply all that he has learned about 
story-telling in general. The test of his success will be the 
fidelity with which he interprets the picture and the skill 
with which he tells the story in words. 

The picture that suggests a story. The second picture 
leaves to the imagination of the children the task of complet- 
ing the story. The individual who is to interpret the picture 
must decide what wonderful thing the chest washed up by 
the waves contains. This is a valuable exercise because it 
cultivates the creative imagination. Have the stories told 
without class preparation, and make the exercise a contest 
to see who invents the most interesting situation. 


LATER STEPS IN STORY-TELLING 


It is a good plan to take up story-telling features one at a 
time, and to concentrate upon the new feature, not until per- 
fection is reached, but until it is established in the child’s 
mind as an invariable characteristic of a good story. The 
same characteristic may again be taken up in later grades, but 
in a more mature manner. 

Giving facts in their right order. Telling how some piece 
of work is done at home affords an excellent opportunity for 
training children to follow a logical order. Let the children 
come prepared with helping-at-home stories, and note the 


133 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 





134 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 





ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 135 


first variation from the natural order. Put on the blackboard 
a composition in which the order is not correct, and let the 
pupils tell what should come first, what second, and so on. 
While this is being done, bear in mind that thinking is an 
orderly process. When the pupil is trying in the lowest grades 
to arrange his thoughts in their natural order, he is gaining 
precisely the power he needs most at the moment, and at the 
same time he is laying a strong foundation for more complex 
thinking at a later stage. 

As soon as the children begin to tell how they do things, 
the “then”? demon makes its appearance. A child tells 
what is done first, and begins his next sentence, and often all 
subsequent sentences, with the word then. Or, all sentences 
begin with the pronoun J or we. The method of contrast 
works well in such cases. Imagine that the following story 
is written on the blackboard for criticism : 


I always take care of the chickens. I feed them every morning 
and evening. I give them fresh water three times a day. I crush 
shells for them now and then. 


Ask the children in what way all the sentences are alike. 
They will promptly discover the prevailing J. Then suggest 
that they try to tell the story in such a way that not all the 
sentences will begin with the same word. After discussion, 
they evolve the following: 


I always take care of the chickens. I feed them every morning 
and evening. Three times a day I give them fresh water. Now © 
and then I crush shells for them. 


Not only will this exercise result in a greatly improved 
story, but it gives invaluable training in securing variety in 
sentence form. When the two stories are compared, the 
children will appreciate the improvement that has been made. 
Telling facts in their right order and avoiding the beginning 


136 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


of all sentences with the same word will become their definite 
aims in learning to tell how something is done, and the critics 
will give special attention to these matters. The other story- 
telling aims, of course, will also be kept in mind. 

Choosing good beginning sentences. From the outset, 
some attention has incidentally been given to beginning sen- 
tences; but special attention should be given to the matter 
from the standpoint of enlisting the hearer’s interest from the 
start. Take a story like the following, for instance: 


I have a dog. His name is Fido. Fido can march on his hind 
legs. Whenever he hears music, he begins to parade. He is the 
pride of the entire block. 


This is a story of something that Fido can do. Ask the 
children where the real story begins. They will soon see that 
the first two sentences are not needed, but that the third at 
once arouses interest, and may easily be changed into a good 
beginning sentence. A good deal of class practice in giving 
good beginning sentences for stories told by pictures in their 
books, or for stories of imaginary experiences, — going out in 
a boat on the lake and falling overboard, for instance, — is 
valuable. 

Learning to describe. Description in some of its aspects 
is the most difficult of the language forms. Only the simple 
description that the child’s actual needs require of him should 
be attempted in the third and fourth grades. The aim should 
be to make a word picture that will be as clear as a painting 
would be. This requires the use of exact language. 

Children, like many adults, are prone to use general terms 
when describing. Things are pretty, beautiful, lovely, and 
— alas and alack ! — “‘ swell!’’ Here, again, the method of 
contrast is valuable. Suppose that after Christmas a child 
wishes to tell her classmates about a new doll that she 
received for a gift. She says: 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 137 


Aunt Jennie gave me the loveliest doll you ever saw. It has a 
beautiful dress and hat, and cunning little shoes. 


It is well to admit that the doll is probably a beautiful one, 
but ask how many really have a picture of the doll in their 
minds. If some child indicates that he has, ask him what 
color the dress is, whether the shoes are laced or buttoned, 
and if the hat islarge orsmall. This, naturally, he cannot do, 
and the fact that the child who told the story did not make a 
word-picture of the doll is forced home. 

The next step is to ask the story-teller to begin once more 
and try to make a real picture. With some help, if necessary, 


she will evolve a story that will help her classmates to see the 
doll. 


Aunt Jennie gave me a lovely big doll. She has red cheeks and 
light yellow hair. Her dress is made of red silk, and she has a large 
white hat. Her slippers are made of red leather. Everybody 
thinks she is beautiful. 


The children will admit at once that this description helps 
them really to see the doll. 

For practice, children like to bring toys to school and keep 
them out of sight until they have described them in class. 
The toys are then unwrapped, and the class decide whether 
the descriptions were good. 

Other opportunities for description of the simple sort are 
afforded by making riddles in which the pupils imagine them- 
selves to be animals, fruits, useful objects in the schoolroom, 
and so on; by projects which make it necessary for the pupils 
to tell how they think some object to be made should look 
in order to fulfill its mission; and frequently in nature study 
by the necessity of describing for identification by the class 
some unknown flower or bird that was seen. 

“The work in description should add to the pupils’ vocabu- 
laries a stock of adjectives adequate for the exact delineation 


188 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


of any object of which they find it necessary to make a word 
picture. If rightly conducted, it is a valuable means of 
vocabulary growth. 

Intensive story-telling drill. It is a good plan to have once 
or twice during the school year a story-telling week, when 
every English period will be devoted to telling short original 
stories, each child telling one every day. At the end of the 
week, the children will first decide whether or not they have 
improved, and the teacher will then give each pupil her 
opinion. As the result of the week’s practice, each child not 
only should have improved, but he should know exactly what 
his greatest weakness is so that he may try to strengthen it. 
Review what has been said about aims on page 46. 

Further work in strengthening the sentence sense. All 
the story-telling lessons outlined serve to cultivate the sen- 
tence sense. Another means is that of contrasting sentences 
with groups of words that are not sentences. An excellent 
opportunity offers when the children begin to make titles for 
their stories. As a rule, a title is not a sentence. Suppose 
children have noticed that the stories they read have titles, 
and it has been suggested that they give titles to theirs. Let 
us imagine that they find in their books these titles: 

Cinderella 

Abraham Lincoln’s Boyhood 
The First Railroad 

The Grateful Lion 

Ask the pupils if the first title tells anything about Cinder- 
ella or if it simply names her. They readily see that it names 
her. Then make it plain to them that when they see this 
word at the head of a story they know what the story is about 
as well as if the title read “ This Story Is about Cinderella.” 
Treat other titles in the same way, and continue the practice 
until the pupils recognize the difference between a sentence 
about the title and the title itself. The latter may not be a 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 139 


sentence, but it answers its purpose just as does the label 
“Orange Marmalade ” on a fruit jar. The label tells what 
is in the jar quite as plainly as would the sentence, ‘“* There 
is orange marmalade in this jar.”’ 

When the children begin to make titles for their stories, 
an exercise that should not be attempted too early, it helps to 
have them first give a sentence, and then select from the sen- 
tence the words that make a good title. A child might say, 
for instance, “I am going to tell about an exciting game I 
played.” He is then led to see that “ An Exciting Game I 
Played,” or merely “‘ An Exciting Game,” makes a good title. 
And while learning in this way to make a good title, he is 
also strengthening his sentence sense by discriminating clearly 
between expressions that are sentences and others that are 
not, but that serve the purpose of labels. 

Contrasting sentences with non-sentences in conversation. 
The study of conversation affords a good opportunity for 
strengthening the sentence sense by means of contrast. Take 
a conversation like the following, for instance: 


Tom: Frank, may I borrow your ball? 
Frank: Certainly, Tom. 


In replying, Frank does not use a sentence, but he speaks 
correctly. Children should be allowed to use in school any 
form of expression that passes as good usage outside of school. 
Insistence on complete sentences at all times produces arti- 
ficial forms of expression. ‘The pupils quickly appreciate that 
in story-telling or other narrative, sentences must be used, 
because otherwise the meaning would not be clear. But in 
conversation, words not forming sentences are often used. 
The pupils should understand that Frank’s reply, although 
not a sentence, was correct because it left no chance of mis- 
understanding. 

In drill exercises in arithmetic, and frequently in other 


140 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


school exercises, the briefest answers are allowable. If in a 
rapid drill exercise a pupil is asked how many six times seven 
are, “‘ Forty-two ”’ is a better answer than “ Six times seven 
are forty-two,”’ because it is quite as clear and short answers 
make possible a large amount of drill during the period 
devoted to the exercise. 

A good drill consists in selecting familiar conversation 
from readers and other books, and allowing the pupils to 
find the remarks that are not in sentence form. If they 
can do this, and can then change each remark to the sen- 
tence form, they have a notion of what a sentence is, 
although they cannot define it or give a logical explanation 
of its characteristics. 

Another illustration of phrases correctly used instead of 
sentences is found in expressions like “ Good morning,” “‘ A 
merry Christmas,” and the like. Comparing these phrases 
with the sentences, “‘ I bid you good morning ”’ and “ I wish 
you a merry Christmas,” further serves to strengthen the 
sentence sense by the contrast method. 


REPRODUCTION 


Introduction. Up to this point the telling of original 
stories has been considered. This section deals with the 
telling of stories borrowed for the purpose. The telling may 
be accomplished either entirely in words, in which case we 
name it reproduction, or partly by action, in which case we 
term it dramatization. Reproduction will first be considered. 

The value of reproduction. Reproduction in story form 
is a useful exercise if it is not overdone, and if the teacher 
appreciates both its limitations and its advantages. In 
reproducing the thoughts of another, a pupil is required 
neither to select his own subject nor to organize his thoughts 
in the best way. The ideas to be expressed are provided 
ready made, and if the matter is worth reproducing, the 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 141 


arrangement of the ideas cannot be changed in any significant 
way without marring the story. For this reason, reproduction 
cannot be considered a substitute for original story-telling. 

Reproduction has its own function, however. The story 
to be retold furnishes a model for both sentence structure 
and arrangement of ideas. In retelling the story, the pupil 
will consciously or unconsciously imitate to a certain extent 
both of these features. This gives him experience in telling 
a story in a more finished way than is possible in his original 
work. At the same time he greatly enlarges his vocabulary. 

Many teachers err in asking children to reproduce long 
stories, with the result that the pupils ramble almost as aim- 
lessly as they do in trying to narrate lengthy experiences of 
their own. If any desirable results are to be gained from 
reproduction, the children’s limitations must be recognized. 

A story to reproduce. Like every other type of language 
exercise, reproduction should begin in the simplest way, and 
advance step by step in difficulty, as the children’s power and 
vocabulary increase. The following story may be used to 
illustrate three types of reproduction, each more advanced 
than the preceding. The first and second may be used with 
third- and fourth-grade children, and the third may some- 
times be used in the case of a specially gifted child, who should 
occasionally have an opportunity to use his powers to the 
utmost. 


How tHE Moon anv THE Stars CAME To BE 


Long, long ago, the sky was much nearer to the earth than it is 
now. It looked like a great rock. A tall person could reach it. 

One day in that far-off time, a woman went out to pound rice. 
Before she began her work, she took a string of beads from her neck 
and a beautiful comb from her hair. As she did not wish them to 
get broken, she hung them on the sky. 

Each time she raised her pestle into the air, it struck the sky. 
At last she raised it so very high, that it gave the sky a hard blow. 


142 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Slowly the sky began to rise. It went up so high that the woman 
could not reach her beads and her comb. ‘The string of beads broke, 
and the beads scattered all over the sky. After a long time, the 
comb changed into the moon, and each bead changed into a star. 
That is how the moon and the stars came to be. 


The question-and-answer method of reproduction. The 
first method of reproduction may be called the question-and- 
answer method. It is frequently employed when children 
are asked questions about stories they have read or heard, or 
questions about matter read silently. 

The teacher has the story well in mind, and after telling it 
to the pupils several times, making sure that they understand 
what a pestle is and how the woman used it to pound the rice, 
she asks questions whose answers retell the story, errors being 
corrected whenever necessary. ‘These questions might be 
asked, for instance: 


Can you touch the sky? Why not? 

Where was the sky long ago? How did it look? 

In that far-off time, what did a woman go out to do? 
What pretty things did she wear? 

How did she take care of them? 

Show how she pounded the rice, and then tell it in words. 
What accident happened after a while? 

Why was the woman unable to get her beads and her comb? 
What happened to the string of beads? 

How was each bead changed ? 

How was the comb changed ? 

What does the story explain? 


It will be observed that the questions suggested deal with 
single thought units as a rule, and for this reason the method 
is good with the youngest children. The teacher should aim 
to get clear-cut sentences in reply to the questions, and should 
frequently call upon several children to answer a given 
question, allowing the pupils to decide which answer is best. 
This answer may then be repeated. 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 143 


The topic method of reproduction. The second type of 
reproduction may be called the topic method. The teacher 
may tell the story several times, showing the children that it 
is divided into parts. The first part tells about the sky long 
ago, the second tells how the woman got ready to work, the 
third tells how she struck the sky with her pestle, and the 
fourth tells what then happened to sky, comb, and beads. 
Do not expect at this stage any original work in finding the 
parts of astory. A better way is for the teacher to tell what 
each part is about and then to say: 

May, you may tell about the sky long ago. 

Frank, you may tell how a woman got ready to pound her rice. 


John, you may tell and show how she pounded her rice. 
Jessie, you may tell all that happened at the last. 


Let the pupils selected think for a few minutes, and then 
ask each to tell his part of the story. The other pupils should 
be on the alert to notice if anything important is left out, and 
the most conspicuous errors should be corrected. Then other 
groups may follow, each trying to improve the reproduction. 
The moment interest begins to lag, the time has come to drop 
the story, at least for the time being. Children’s interest in a 
story often revives after a while. 

It has long been the practice in connection with repro- 
duction to say to children, “ Tell it in your own words.” 
The object of this caution was to prevent the stilted story- 
telling that always results when a child tries to remember the 
exact words used by the teacher or by the author of a story. 
It was also considered a safeguard against telling a story with- 
out understanding it. 

The caution, however, may do harm. The child’s own 
words, or his own manner of telling a story, are the matters 
reproduction is designed to improve. He should, it is true, 
use many of his own words, but he should also choose certain 
words used by the story-teller and substitute them for his own 


144 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


less expressive words. This is a valuable self-help way in 
which to enlarge the vocabulary. The teacher may help in 
this conscious use of words from the author by saying 
occasionally, “‘ Let us tell that part of the story exactly as the 
author did. There is no better way to tell it.” 

The prevention of unintelligent reproduction is a part of the 
work of preparing for the exercise. No child should be asked 
to reproduce a story until it has been informally discussed 
and the teacher is sure that it is fully understood. 

The entire-story method. The third method of reproduc- 
tion is the entire-story method. Not all children in the third 
and fourth grades should be asked to reproduce an entire 
story as long as this one, but there are frequently children who 
are in advance of the others, and these children should be 
allowed occasionally to tell the entire story in order that they 
may exercise their powers to the utmost. 

When the children have learned to read, stories from their 
books may sometimes be reproduced by the question method, 
and by the topic method when the parts are short. The num- 
ber of the parts does not much matter. Take the story of 
“The Three Bears,” for instance. It is much better for 
topic reproduction than many shorter stories, because each 
episode stands out with clearness. 

But while stories of the length considered should not as a 
rule be reproduced as wholes by third- and fourth-grade 
children for much the same reasons that long original stories 
should be avoided, very short stories may be reproduced, and 
with such conscious attention to the author’s words that the 
story is practically memorized. Fables are excellent for this 
purpose. Take the following one, for instance: 


Tue Boy AND THE Nuts 


A boy put his hand into a jar of nuts. He grasped so many that 
he could not get his hand out. This frightened him and he burst into 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 145 


tears. ‘* Drop half the nuts and your hand will come out,” said a 
man who was standing near by. The boy took this advice and had 
no further trouble. 


Have the fable read silently, and then use questions as in 
the first type of reproduction. Call attention to words and 
phrases that not only are well chosen for this particular story, 
but that should also become a part of the pupil’s speaking 
vocabulary. Into the jar, grasped so many, burst into tears, 
half the nuts, took his advice, further trouble are illustrations. 
Then ask the pupils to study the story and be ready at a 
given time to tell it. When the story has been told by one 
child, the rest should state whether it was told well and natu- 
rally. It is a good plan to encourage the children to tell at 
home the stories they reproduce in school. 

To all intents and purposes the foregoing reproduction 
becomes a memory exercise. Committing prose to memory 
is a method much used in French schools for improving sen- 
tence form and increasing the vocabulary. The method is 
also used by the best teachers of foreign languages. In our 
schools it is unfortunately neglected, and yet it is invaluable. 
A number of fables or other good short stories committed to 
memory during the third and fourth years will not only 
increase the child’s language power and his vocabulary, but 
will be a source of great satisfaction during the following 
years. The fables are worth knowing for their own sake. 
After they have been learned, they should be reviewed from 
time to time in order that they may become a permanent 
possession. 


DRAMATIZATION 


Introduction. The dramatization method of reproduction 
is invaluable because it demands action and conversation 
precisely as ordinary life situations do. Sometimes the con- 
versation is given, but at other times it is implied and must 


146 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


be provided by the pupils. This indicates that there are 
more or less difficult types of dramatization. 

The nature of dramatization. Dramatization affords 
training to the imagination, it gratifies the child’s play 
instinct, and it both develops and trains the power to com- 
bine action and speech in expressing ideas. It is essentially 
make-believe. The child imagines himself to be some other 
person or some animal, and for the time being assumes the 
characteristics of the person or animal portrayed. He acts 
as far as possible as the other person or animal would act, and 
expresses the thoughts that this person or animal would 
harbor under the circumstances. Under the stimulus of an 
active imagination, make-believe becomes a real experience 
— it is life itself. 

How dramatization differs from reproduction. Repro- 
duction by means of dramatization differs radically from 
reproduction by means of words alone, and it is well for the 
teacher to have the difference in mind so that she may know 
exactly what she is aiming to accomplish and may be able to 
direct the pupils toward this end. Story-reproduction in- 
volves talking about characters as well as repeating their 
conversation. Dramatization is limited to the conversation 
as far as oral expression is concerned, all other necessary parts 
of the story being told by action. Moreover, any given 
pupil represents only one character, confining himself to the 
words and the actions of that character. Because several 
children must help each other tell the story, dramatization 
is a peculiarly social activity. 

Foundation training for dramatization. Like reproduction 
in story-form, dramatization should at first be very simple. 
Long before a complete story is attempted, the pupils should 
become accustomed to action as a means of expressing an 
idea. It will be remembered that in connection with the 
story, ““ How the Moon and the Stars Came to Be,” it was 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 147 


suggested that the pupil show how the woman used the pestle 
and then tell it in words. From the first grade upward, this 
telling by means of action should be cultivated. When the 
story of “‘’The Three Bears,” for instance, is being reproduced 
by the topic-method, the children should invariably during 
the first discussion of the story show how Goldilocks sat on 
the chairs, how she ate the porridge, how she tested the beds, 
how she started in surprise when the bears returned, and how 
she escaped. 

Many failures to secure free, spontaneous dramatization 
are due to the omission of this preliminary training. Chil- 
dren should not be asked to dramatize an entire story until 
the habit of expressing thought by means of action has 
become as natural and as spontaneous in school as it is 
outside of school. 

A story to dramatize. The preliminary work having been 
done, the dramatization of a story may be planned. Like 
reproduction in. story form, dramatization at the outset 
should be simple, greater demands being made on the chil- 
dren’s powers as their confidence and skill increase. 

It should always be borne in mind that the good story for 
dramatization must be dramatic — that is, it must afford an 
abundance of opportunity for action and for conversation. 
Here is a type of story suitable for dramatization : 


Toe MonkKEY AND THE BEES 


One day a Monkey found some honey in an old tree. 

“‘Ha!” he said to the Bees. ‘“‘Give me that honey!” 

“No,” the Bees said. ‘‘We won’t give you our honey. We work 
to make our honey. Every day when the sun shines we work, but 
you only play. When the rain comes, we shall have this honey to 
eat. So you can’t have it.” 

“You poor little things!” said the Monkey, laughing. ‘“‘Don’t 
you know that I am a big monkey? You are little and I am big. 
If you don’t give me your honey, I can take it from you.” 


148 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


> 


**No, you can’t,” the Bees said. “If you do, we will sting you.’ 

The Monkey laughed again and put his paw into the honey. 

Then all the little Bees flew at him. One Bee stung him in the 
mouth, one stung him in the eye, one on the ear. 

“Stop! Stop!” cried the Monkey. “Stop stinging me, and I 
won’t take your honey.” 

But the Bees would not stop stinging him, until he ran away and 


jumped into the river. 
Then the Bees laughed. 
“We are little,” they said, ‘“‘but we can sting.” 


“The Monkey and the Bees ”’ represents the first type of 
story suitable for dramatization. It is short, it is interesting, 
it has plenty of action, and the conversation is given. It also 
affords exercise for the imagination in requiring the pupils to 
plan how they will represent the tree and the river. Sucha 
story is comparatively easy to dramatize. 

Preparation for dramatization. ‘The story may be told to 
the children, or they may read it. After being read as a whole, 
possibly several times, it should be read as a dialogue, one 
child impersonating the Monkey and several others the Bees. 
This gives practice in separating the story into the parts to 
be acted and the parts to be told in words. 

Before beginning the dramatization, make sure that the 
children understand that they are simply to tell it in a new 
way. If they have frequently used action as a means of 
expressing thought, this will seem perfectly natural to them. 

The preparation for dramatization in itself affords an 
opportunity for the best kind of language work. The chil- 
dren must decide for themselves how they shall represent the 
old tree. One may suggest that the top of a desk will answer. 
Another child may see at a glance that the desk would not 
give room enough for several active bees. A third child may 
suggest the teacher’s desk. At every step let the children 
themselves decide which suggestion is best. 

One child may suggest that they need something to hold the 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 149 


honey, and gradually, as many pupils as possible having 
expressed their views, the scene will be prepared. A chair 
on which the monkey will climb to the tree is almost certain 
to be suggested. The children should also decide in advance 
how they can best play stinging the monkey, and where the 
river shall be located. 

This having been done, character selection alone remains 
to be attended to. In the early dramatization, it is a good 
plan to call for volunteers, thus insuring enthusiastic work. 
During the dramatization the teacher should stay in the back- 
ground, but be ever on the alert to note errors of speech so 
that they may be corrected before a second set of children 
repeat the play. The children should not be interrupted 
after the play begins, but the opportunity to suggest a word 
if the child hesitates should be improved. 

After the first dramatization, other groups may be selected, 
each trying to do better than the preceding group. This 
repetition often gives an opportunity to draw out the timid 
or naturally unresponsive child, who will sometimes be reluc- 
tant to take part at first, but will be much more ready to do 
so after others have lighted the way. It must be remembered 
always that the children who most need the training fre- 
quently are the very ones who do not volunteer. Gradually 
and tactfully many of these children may be led to enter into 
the spirit of the dramatization. 

A teacher need not be discouraged if occasionally she finds 
a child who remains reluctant to take part in the dramatiza- 
tion itself, even though greatly interested in the work of the 
other children. Perhaps there never will be a time when all 
children will enjoy dramatization, any more than there is 
likely to be a time when all adults will enjoy dramatic expres- 
sion. After all, it is not necessary that all children be en- 
thusiastic actors, although a majority will always enjoy the 
exercise. If there is a peculiarly diffident child, to whom 


150 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


dramatizing is a sort of torture, let such a child take a more 
active part in preparing for the dramatization. Such a child 
often, too, makes a good critic. 

A second story for dramatization. Here is another story 
suitable for dramatization in the way illustrated. “ The 
Three Bears ”’ might also be used. 


THe GIANT AND THE SHEEP 


Once upon a time a large sheep named Curly-Horn, a middle- 
sized sheep named Snow-Fleece, and a baby sheep named Lamb- 
kin were strolling in a forest where a giant lived. As Lambkin 
was passing his house, the giant ran out and caught him. 

“What luck!” cried the giant. ‘‘Now I shall have roast 
lamb for my supper.” 

**Oh, do not eat me,” whined Lambkin. ‘My sister Snow- 
Fleece is coming this way soon. She is much fatter than I am. 
She will make you a better supper.” 

So the giant put him down, and he scampered home. 

Soon after Snow-Fleece came along the path. The giant 
dashed from his house and seized her. 

“What a fat sheep!” he shouted. ‘“‘Here’s a supper fit for a 
king.” 

“Oh, do not eat me, Giant,’ cried Snow-Fleece. ‘“‘My 
brother Curly-Horn is much larger and fatter than I am. He 
will make you two suppers.” 

So the giant let her go, and she ran home as fast as her feet 
could carry her. 

By and by Curly-Horn jogged slowly along, and the giant 
pounced upon him. 

“Ho, ho!” he thundered. ‘‘This fellow was worth waiting 
for. What a feast I shall have!” 

“But you shall not feast on me,” exclaimed Curly-Horn, 
angrily. ‘Then he tossed his horns, and the giant rolled over 
into the well. That was the end of the monster. 

When Curly-Horn reached home, the three sheep danced for 
joy. 

“I knew Snow-Fleece would get away from the giant,” said 
Lambkin. 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 151 


**And I knew Curly-Horn was a match for any giant in the 
land,” said Snow-Fleece. 

Curly-Horn looked very proud and happy, but all he said 
was, ‘“Baa-a! Baa-a! Baa-a!” 


This story is more difficult to dramatize than the preceding 
story, since it makes a greater demand upon the creative 
power of the children. They must plan the forest, they must 
select a place for the home, and they must devise some way 
in which Curly-Horn can toss the giant into the well without 
being as rough as the real Curly-Horn must have been. 
There is also an opportunity for more conversation. The 
sheep might, for instance, make a plan for passing the giant’s 
house one at a time, possibly because they thought one would 
have a chance to get by unobserved. The conversation 
after all the sheep reach home might also be extended by 
imaginative children. 

Before dramatizing the story, let several children show how 
the giant pounced upon Curly-Horn, how the latter tossed the 
giant into the well, how the giant shouted and thundered, 
how Lambkin whined, how he scampered home, and so on. 
The children taking the several parts in the first drama- 
tization will quickly adopt any suggestion that was particu- 
larly good. 

A more difficult type of dramatization. The following story 
represents a different type for dramatization, and should 
possibly not be used in these grades. It is put here to 
familiarize the teacher with the type, and it may be used 
if the children are ready for it. 


Tue FoouisH Locust 


One day a locust and an ant went to a wheat field for dinner. 
When they had eaten, the ant picked up a grain of wheat to take 
home. The locust told him that he was foolish. He said that he 


152 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


himself always came to the field to eat and asked the ant why he 
did not do so. 
One day the locust came again to the field. He was very hungry, 
but he could find no wheat. It had all been gathered by the reapers. 
At last the hungry locust went to the home of the ant and begged 
him for some wheat. The ant laughed and asked him why he had 
not stored up wheat for himself. 


The dramatization of this fable makes a greater demand 
upon the children than does the first type of story. Here no 
actual conversation is given, and it becomes necessary for the 
pupils to supply it all. It should be attempted only when the 
pupils have gained considerable freedom in expressing their 
thoughts. 

The story should either be told to the children or be 
read to them. After it is familiar, the class may be shown 
that it does not tell what the insects said to each other — 
that is, it does not give their words. Ask the children what 
the ant and the locust probably said when they first met, and 
what they might have talked about while eating dinner, when 
they were going home, and when the locust came to the ant’s 
house. The best suggestions for the conversation might be 
written on the blackboard, and read once more before the 
dramatization is attempted. The children should see that 
they are going to tell the story that they read, or that was 
read to them, but they are going to tell it much more fully. 

The value of this sort of dramatization after the class is 
ready for it cannot well be overestimated. It gives an oppor- 
tunity for the children to express themselves in their own 
words, with little suggestion from book or teacher. The 
imagination is called into play, and genuine creative work is 
required. 

A useful type of dramatization may be associated with the 
teaching of good manners. Let the children imagine them- 
selves meeting each other on the street, asking one another 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 153 


for some kind of help, leaving the room with an older person, 
entering street cars, and in fact in any situations that require 
courteous consideration of other persons. The children 
themselves can suggest the circumstances and plan how to 
dramatize the incident. At the close of this chapter is a refer- 
ence to a pamphlet that will give much help in this kind of 
dramatization. 


Cautions, REMINDERS, AND FurRTHER SUGGESTIONS 


1. Do not ask the pupils to reproduce all, or most of, the stories 
they read or the stories that are told to them. A child’s pleasure in 
a story is often clouded by the knowledge that he will be expected to 
reproduce it. Many stories should be told for the pure pleasure 
they will afford the children, and for the unconscious growth of 
vocabulary that they will make possible. It is sometimes a good 
plan to tell the class in advance that a certain story is to be repro- 
duced later. This gives them an opportunity to devote some atten- 
tion to the form of the story, and if they consciously try to remember 
some of the conversation in order to use it later, so much the better. 
Imitation is the leading activity in learning to use language freely 
and effectively. 

2. The stories for reproduction in words should be short. Those 
for dramatization may be longer, as the descriptive part of the story 
— that is, the part containing no conversation — need not be repro- 
duced in words. 

3. Provide, whenever possible, a motive for repeating the repro- 
duction of a story. Sometimes it may happen that a pupil was 
absent from school when the story was originally produced. Re- 
peating the word-story or the dramatization for this child when he 
returns to school will invariably secure the most spirited work of 
which the children are capable, and will at the same time strengthen 
the social spirit. Or the dramatization may be repeated for another 
grade, or the principal may be invited to visit the room and be 
entertained. Occasionally a dramatization may be carefully pre- 
pared to serve as part of a school entertainment. 

4. In carrying out the previous suggestion, do not let dramatiza- 
tion become merely a mode of entertainment, legitimate as this may 
occasionally be. Many of the pupils will never act with great 
spontaneity, but they need the training more than do those who are 


154 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


naturally free in their play and lacking in self-consciousness. It is 
but natural that the best actors be selected when entertainment is 
the chief motive. Abundant opportunity must be afforded at other 
times for the less gifted children to dramatize. 

5. The teacher will often note a tempting opportunity for intro- 
ducing a thought of her own. She must learn to refrain from doing 
this, unless she can suggest the idea to the children’s minds in such a 
manner that apparently it originates with them. ‘The best that the 
children can produce without leading suggestions from the teacher is 
the ideal reproduction or dramatization to secure. It may be crude, 
— in fact, it will be crude, — but it is more valuable for the child 
than a more finished production whose details are suggested by 
the teacher. 

6. Make a collection of stories particularly good for reproduction 
either in words or by means of dramatization. The larger the stock, 
the better it will be. Classes vary in ability, and a large collection 
affords an opportunity to select with special attention to class needs. 

7. Occasionally it is a good plan for the teacher to take some part 
in the dramatization. In doing this, she should not strive to confine 
herself to the children’s vocabulary, provided her meaning is per- 
fectly apparent. At other times the teacher’s réle is that of a 
responsible looker-on, who is to interfere as little as possible, but is 
to be ever ready to give required help in such a way that the children 
will learn to help themselves. 

8. Remember that you will not do your best teaching in any line 
unless you have a definite aim for every exercise. You may some- 
times suggest dramatization for the sake of improving familiar 
conversation; sometimes it may be introduced as an aid in inter- 
preting a story; again its object may be to improve sentence struc- 
ture or to teach certain idioms that recur frequently in the story 
concerned. If you have one leading object always, and in your 
criticism and constructive suggestion limit yourself in the main to 
that, your chances for accomplishing something worthy of your 
effort are greatly increased. Have a definite aim. 


On page 43 is a list of books containing good stories. A 
few of these should be in the possession of every teacher of 
young children whenever it is possible. These, and stories 
from other sources, should be studied with a view to deter- 
mining their most valuable use. Some will be good most of 


ORAL COMPOSITION LESSONS 155 


all for story-telling for the pleasure they afford, some for 
reproduction in words, and others for dramatization. Itisa 
good plan to classify the stories collected on the basis of the 
function that each is best fitted to perform. 


Tor Tuoucut AND Discussion 


1. If you have never done so, make a list of the various motives 
to which you may appeal for making oral story-telling a real experi- 
ence instead of merely a means of gaining language power. 

2. How do the best compositions your pupils produce compare 
with the standards given in any of the books listed at the close of 
this chapter? Shall you consider these standard compositions as 
models to be imitated, attainments to be surpassed, or simply as a 
means of comparing the work of your own class with that of other 
schools of the same grade? 

3. If you teach in a country school and have many classes, have 
you tried largely reducing the number for composition teaching? 
Why is it more possible to combine classes for this work than for 
some other subjects? In making such combinations, shall you con- 
sider individual capacity or class lines? 

4. As your class improves in composition, shall you increase or 
diminish the number of oral compositions required? Why? 

5. What will be the inevitable effect upon your pupils if you do 
not expect the power gained in the oral English class to transfer to 
all other occasions requiring expression in words ? 

6. What will be the inevitable effect upon your pupils of not 
expecting and requiring steady improvement ? 

7. Have you tried having your pupils give periodical reports of 
their own improvement? Why is this a valuable exercise? 


For READING AND StuDY 


The books and pamphlets listed below as a rule are concerned 
with the entire elementary course. When no chapters are indicated, 
consult the Index of the book in order to find what you wish. 


CARPENTER, Baker, AND Scott. The Teaching of English. 
Longmans, Green & Co. 

Cuusps. The Teaching of English. The Macmillan Company. 

Kenpauu-Miricx. How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Company. 


156 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Kuapprer. The Teaching of English. D. Appleton & Co. 

LronarD. English Composition as a Social Problem. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. 

McNaveut. Training in Courtesy. Bureau of Education, Depart- 
ment of the Interior, Washington, D. C. 

Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
tion. Part I, Chapter III, “New Materials of Instruction for 
Grades IV, V, and VI.’’ 

Witson. The Motivation of School Work, Chapter VI. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. 

Youne-Memmott. Methods in Elementary English. D. Appleton 
& Co. 


Consult the following periodicals whenever you have an oppor- 
tunity todo so. All will be found helpful. The teaching of English 
is being steadily modified, and it is in these leading educational 
journals that the most helpful material often appears. 


Elementary English Review. 7450 Woodward Avenue, Detroit, 
Michigan. 

Elementary School Journal. University of Chicago, Chicago, IIli- 
nois. 

Journal of Educational Method. World Book Company, Yonkers- 
on-Hudson, New York. 

Teachers College Record. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. 

Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education. Public 
School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 


STANDARDS IN COMPOSITION 


Manoney. Standards in English. World Book Company. 
Savitz, BatEs, AND Starry. Composition Standards. Hinds, 
Hayden & Eldredge, Inc. 
SHERIDAN. Speaking and Writing English. Benjamin H. Sanborn 
Co. 


Consult also the books listed at the close of Chapters Ten and 
Eleven. 


CHAPTER SEVEN 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION IN THE THIRD AND FourTH 
GRADES 


INTRODUCTION 


Results of a written-composition investigation. Some years 
ago, as part of a study of language problems in the elementary 
school, several thousand compositions were collected from a 
large number of cities and rural communities in thirteen 
states, representing every section of our country. Each 
teacher contributing was asked to observe certain simple 
regulations designed to insure uniform conditions, and to 
forward five compositions that represented the average ability 
of her class, two that were above average, and two that were 
below average. 

Much good work was secured, and valuable suggestions were 
derived from it. Buta large number of compositions revealed 
a deplorable weakness in written expression. Some of the out- 
standing features of these compositions were as follows: 


1. There was a lack of the spontaneity and childlikeness that 
usually appear in children’s compositions that relate personal experi- 
ences. ‘This was evidently due to the nature of the subject chosen 
by the pupils, or suggested to them. It may also have been due to 
a lack of interest in writing, or to the absence of an adequate motive. 

2. Many of the compositions were very long, even those written 
by third- and fourth-grade children often filling a large sheet of com- 
position paper. 

3. The subjects were so broad that the compositions were little 
more than collections of miscellaneous ideas but slightly organized. 

4, There was little evidence that the work was based on oral 
composition. ‘The sentences were of the long, run-on type that 
indicates a lack of clear thinking. 

5. The arrangement on paper was poor. Margins and inden- 
tion appeared here and there, but large numbers of compositions 
were guiltless of these fundamentals of form. 

157 


158 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


6. Certain types of error appeared repeatedly, showing how bad 
habits were being strengthened and perpetuated. 

7. Many of the compositions ended abruptly, often in the middle 
of a sentence, the end of the period evidently having arrived when 
the composition was at this stage. A composition was not recog- 
nized as a product that has an end as well as a beginning. 

8. Many of the papers were carelessly written. On the part of 
the pupil, this indicated a lack of pride and satisfaction in producing 
good work, and on that of the teacher, the unfortunate habit of 
accepting work that does not represent genuine effort. 


The remedy for these conditions. Should a teacher receive 
a class whose written work is of the sort described, she will 
naturally seek at once for a remedy. A thoroughly tested 
method is to drop written composition for a time, but to do 
so without discouraging the pupils. Severe criticism of the 
work is unwise. Perhaps it is enough to suggest that in the 
higher grade better work is naturally expected, and that 
therefore time will be taken to get ready for this improved 
work. If the pupils apparently do not notice that written 
work is dropped, nothing whatever need be said about the 
omission. 

For a time emphasize oral composition, appealing to all 
the normal child motives for arousing interest. Continue 
this work until the children can relate an interesting experi- 
ence of their own with some degree of pleasure, and with a 
reasonable regard for the use of short, clear sentences. While 
this method may seem somewhat drastic, it is very effective. 
So far from retarding progress, it inhibits the strengthening of 
bad habits already formed, and insures the healthy growth 
that is possible only when foundations are wisely and securely 
laid, when the pupils are genuinely interested in their work 
and have well-defined ideals, and when from the start they 
are held responsible for doing their best to attain these ideals. 

When the time seems to be ripe for transferring to written 
expression the oral power acquired, it is well to begin teaching 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 159 


written composition in the simple, systematic way described 
in the remainder of this chapter. 


PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION 


The relation between oral and written composition. Since 
oral and written language are simply two different mediums 
for expressing thought, all instruction designed to improve 
expression by means of the spoken word is likewise a prepara- 
tion for the use of written symbols. The thinking that must 
precede having something worth saying, and the thinking 
that results in saying it in the most effective way, are the 
same whether ultimately the thought is to be expressed in 
spoken or in written words. The preceding chapter, there- 
fore, has its own immediate purpose, and at the same time 
provides the foundation for this chapter. 

The specific problem in written composition. ‘The specific 
problem attached to written composition is largely a mechani- 
cal one. The pupils must master a new set of forms, the 
term forms including all matters of arrangement, spelling, 
punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. 

As a matter of fact, the foundation will usually have been 
laid in the second grade. But the second-grade work is small 
in amount and narrow in range, and is supervised with the 
most scrupulous care, every effort being made to cultivate 
right habits by eternal vigilance on the part of the teacher. 
The work is largely safeguarded from without. Beginning 
with the third grade, self-help methods should gradually 
come more and more to the front, initiative and safeguarding 
being increasingly derived from within. 


COPYING 


Introduction. Copying is the logical first step in the series 
of self-help writing activities, since it provides the thoughts 
to be expressed, and makes it possible for the pupil to con- 


160 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


centrate his attention for the time being on matters of form. 
The habit of observing the common requirements of form 
should be acquired early, in order that later the pupil may be 
free to devote his attention largely to the thought he is trying 
to express. But copying for the sake of copying is dreary 
work for the child, and it should therefore be motivated, as 
was suggested in connection with the foundation work. Read 
carefully what is said on this point in Chapter Two, and 
appeal to similar motives in the third grade. 

Teaching how to copy. The ordinary course of procedure 
has been to tell the pupils to “ copy the sentence just as it is 
in the book.” This direction is mainly responsible for the 
word-by-word, or even letter-by-letter, copying that pre- 
vails. Below are some suggestions for more effective ways 
of teaching children to copy. 

Cultivate an appreciation of good appearance. If an out- 
worn book is at hand, cut out several type pages and ask the 
children if they like the appearance of these pages as well as 
that of the pages with a frame of blank paper. They readily 
get the point, and invariably vote for the margins. Then 
suggest that their written work will look better with margins 
than without. Decide by class discussion how wide the 
margins shall be for the kind of paper to be used; how much 
space shall be left at the top of the sheet, how much at the 
left, and how much at the foot. The pupils will soon dis- 
cover that it is not possible to keep an even right margin, 
but the teacher should insist that there must be no crowding 
at the end of the line. Although somewhat irregular, the 
right margin should not be wanting. 

There are certain matters regarding which there is a dif- 
ference of opinion among good teachers. Some think that 
the habit of leaving margins will be most readily formed if 
at first the margins are ruled. Others assert that children 
give no genuine thought to the margin when it is ruled, and 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 161 


the margin merely serves as a crutch. When the crutch is 
withdrawn, the pupil is helpless. It has been convincingly 
demonstrated that if the responsibility for margins is thrown 
upon the children at the outset, they will gradually acquire 
skill in leaving a left-hand margin that is fairly regular, and 
will remember to leave the required space at the top and the 
foot of the page. Children grow rapidly when reasonable 
responsibility is laid upon them. 

Teach the pupils how to study the matter to be copied. Let us 
suppose that the following sentences have been developed in 
an oral exercise, and written on the blackboard: 


Our teeth are good friends. 
We must always keep them clean. 


Before beginning to copy the first sentence, the class may 
study it in accordance with the directions given below. If 
these or similar directions do not appear in the language 
books used, they should be written on the blackboard. Or, 
if blackboard space is limited, they may be given one at a 
time as the teacher works with the class. There is, however, 
a great advantage in having the direction before the pupils 
and in training them to interpret and follow them whenever 
they copy. This is the self-help way. 


1. Read the sentence and be sure of its meaning. 

2. Answer the following questions : 
With what kind of letter does the sentence begin ? 
Does the sentence tell something or does it ask something ? 
What mark is used at the end? 

3. Study any words you do not know how to spell. 

4. Read the entire sentence once more. 


When teacher and class together have taken these steps 
one by one, the children write the first sentence without 
again looking at the blackboard. The second sentence will 
then be studied and written in the same way. 


162 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Have each child carefully go over his work, and make any 
correction that is necessary. Strive from the first to have the 
pupils find their own mistakes, because it is a part of their 
legitimate work and because hunting for the mistakes 
necessitates the close scrutiny that results in a clear men- 
tal picture. 

While mistakes will be made by some children in spite of 
all precautions, keep the motive for copying before the chil- 
dren, thus stimulating them to do their best because it is 
being done for some other person’s use. As time goes on, 
the children should also become conscious of the waste of 
time and effort involved in doing a second time what might 
better have been done right in the first place. 

Teach the children to place their names well. When the name 
is written at the left at the head of the paper, there will be 
little difficulty if the margin habit is cultivated. If, however, 
the name is written below the sentences, it is more difficult to 
start it in the right place. As names differ in length, some 
practice will be necessary. Let each pupil take a sheet of 
blank paper and experiment with his name. When he suc- 
ceeds in placing it so that it looks well, a margin being left at 
the right, ask him to notice where the name begins, and 
thereafter always begin at the same point. 

Train the pupils to write plainly. No teacher is likely to 
overlook the importance of writing plainly. Let the chil- 
dren understand that whenever they write, some one will 
read their words, and that the more plainly the words are 
written, the easier it will be to read them. Writing plainly 
is a form of social service. 


DEVELOPING A PARAGRAPH SENSE 


The nature of a paragraph. Because of the difficulties 
involved in expressing thoughts in writing, it is customary in 
many schools to allow second-grade children to write related 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 163 


sentences one below the other. In the third grade this habit 
should be abandoned. 

The foundation of the paragraph sense has already been 
laid in connection with oral composition, because the short 
story with a limited subject forms a perfect paragraph. To 
impress this upon children, it is helpful to write on the black- 
board one of the short stories told from a picture, and then 
by way of contrast several sentences relating to the same 
picture, but expressing thoughts that are unrelated. Have 
the children decide which set of sentences tells a story, and 
then notice that these sentences are written one after the 
other, and that the first line is indented. Let these two char- 
acteristics be recognized as the symbols of a written para- 
graph, and have it understood that the paragraph form is 
used only when writing sentences that help each other tell a 
story. The sentences in a paragraph form a family, all the 
sentences being related. While the children at this stage will 
write but a single paragraph, let them find in their readers 
various stories, and see how indenting makes it plain where a 
new paragraph begins. 

As soon as the paragraph idea has been developed, class 
stories produced as an oral exercise may be copied, each sen- 
tence being first studied as already suggested. 

Motivated exercises in copying stories. To some children 
practice in writing is drudgery. While this is not wholly 
avoidable, anything that can be done to infuse interest and 
enthusiasm will be of great value. Fortunately a majority of 
young children are willing and glad to work when they have a 
genuine object for doing so. Even the purpose of copying 
stories in order to make it easier to write original stories is 
sufficient for some, but other motives should also be used. 
The stories, written under supervision, and corrected if nec- 
essary, may be used in various ways that appeal to children. 
Here are a few suggestions: 


164 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


1. The best may be selected to be hung up in the schoolroom as 
models for other children, or to be given to pupils as individual 
models. 

2. The stories may be sent to a second grade to be read. 

3. They may be sent to the principal or supervisor. A word of 
reply from the recipient will have much weight, particularly if that 
person expresses a desire to see later a set of original stories from 
the same class. 

4. The stories of each pupil may be preserved and fastened 
together to form a little book. If this is done, the children should 
be trained to watch for improvement and to report progress. 

5. The stories that are carefully written may be taken home so 
that parents and other members of the family may read them. 


The importance of good models of written work. Models 
should be freely used. If necessary at first, the teacher may 
write a short paragraph perfectly placed, and hang it up after 
all have looked at it carefully. Soon, however, the best 
work of the children themselves should be substituted, and 
each child should have a model for his individual use. The 
model should always be scrutinized before beginning a written 
exercise. It is a good plan also to ask the pupils to state just 
what matters they are to keep in mind — margins, indention, 
placing of the name, and the careful study of each sentence 
before it is copied. 

Every teacher knows that it is no easy matter to hold young 
children to persistent effort. It takes time and determina- 
tion to do things in the right way at the start, but it costs 
more time, and discouragement as well, to break up bad 
habits after they are formed. It cannot be too strongly 
urged that the early written work be closely supervised, and 
this day after day without intermission. To assign it as 
“busy work ” invites disaster. When the preparations for 
the lesson have been made, and the children have begun to 
write, the teacher should pass up and down the aisles, quickly 
scan the work of each pupil, and call his attention to any 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 165 


error, not by pointing it out, but by suggesting comparison 
with the model from which he is working. Throw all possible 
responsibility on the pupil, but let no type of error acquire 
momentum before being discovered. After the paragraph 
has been copied and corrected by the pupil, the teacher 
should refuse to accept it if margins, indention, and other 
matters of arrangement have been forgotten, or if the work 
is carelessly done. If the teacher keeps her requirements 
well within the ability of the class, and then expects careful 
work, she is likely to get it; if she fails in these respects, she 
is almost certain to produce a crop of bad habits that will 
handicap the children in a very serious way. And children 
like to be held responsible. In any case, character building 
and learning to write are both involved, and neither must be 
neglected. 

Copying as a basis for letter writing. While in some second 
grades short, simple notes will be written, in every third 
grade there will be pupils who have had no such training, and 
therefore notes may well be used in the early copying work. 
At a later period, letters may sometimes be written for prac- 
tice, this being a legitimate motive, but at this early stage 
the note should always be a genuine communication. Here 
is a note that was written to the drawing teacher by a third- 
grade class: 


Dear Miss Smith, 
Last Thursday we drew pictures for our stories. They are 
hanging up in our room. Will you please come tomorrow to see 


them ? 
The Third Grade 


The children will find many occasions for genuine letter 
writing if they are led to plan their own activities. They 
may invite parents to a school entertainment; they may 
challenge another grade to a spelling match or other contest ; 


9 
™ 


166 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


they may write to an absent pupil, or to special teachers as 
illustrated above. Deciding what shall go into the note 
involves informal class discussion that is in itself very valua- 
ble. The children suggest, discuss the various possibilities, 
and decide what shall be written. 

As the note is built up sentence by sentence, the teacher 
writes it on the blackboard, calling special attention to the 
punctuation required. Each child then copies the note, 
carefully compares it with the blackboard copy, and rewrites 
it if necessary. The copy considered best by a committee of 
children working in conjunction with the teacher is sent by 
messenger; or, in case of an invitation to an entertainment, 
each child delivers the one he writes to the person he wishes 
to invite. 


DICTATION 


Studied dictation. Very simple dictation may be begun as 
soon as enough copying has been done to familiarize the 
pupils with the necessary forms. The matter to be dictated 
should be studied just as if it were to be copied. The sen- 
tences should be so short that the children can carry them in 
mind without difficulty. They should be dictated as wholes, 
and as a rule only once. As when copying, the children 
should correct their own work, exchanging papers only after 
they have developed facility in detecting errors. This is the 
self-help way. 

Unstudied dictation. In the fourth grade, unstudied dic- 
tation may occasionally be given. The matter should be 
similar to that used for studied dictation. Any words that 
the children do not know how to spell should be written on 
the blackboard. It is a good plan to read an unstudied dic- 
tation exercise at the outset as a whole, in order that the 
pupils may determine whether the matter is to be written in 
separate-sentence or in paragraph form. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 167 


WRITING ORIGINAL STORIES 


The oral foundation of written composition. When suff- 
cient preliminary work has been done to warrant the expecta- 
tion of creditable results, original written composition work 
may be begun. If the composition is to be a story, it may 
first be told orally. If the children have learned to describe 
simply, and riddles are to be written, a riddle may be worked 
out in class as a suggestion of the way to go to work. It is 
a safe course to leave no opportunity for falling into error that 
can be anticipated. In this matter, more almost than in 
any other, the ounce of prevention is worth the pound of 
cure. A good general rule to follow is, ‘“‘ Prepare for written 
composition by an oral exercise.”’ This gives the necessary 
opportunity to make sure that a worth-while subject will be 
chosen, that the facts will be carefully selected and arranged, 
and that they will be expressed in the most forceful and effec- 
tive way. The child who recognizes thinking as the first 
step in composition, and trains himself to think clearly, pass- 
ing from thought to thought in an orderly way and expressing 
each clearly, will rarely fall into the run-on sentence habit. 
He will think each sentence through before he begins to write 
it and before he begins to frame the following sentence. 

Criticizing written compositions. Read once more all that 
has been said in former chapters about criticism, and also 
what has been said regarding standards and the teacher’s 
responsibility for providing them. At the root of growth in 
language power lies the ability to appreciate what is good, and 
to know why it is good. From the outset it is a good plan 
after each written lesson to write on the blackboard one or two 
of the compositions produced and have them criticized by the 
class. As suggested in connection with oral composition, the 
pupils will scrutinize each composition to see if the ends aimed 
at have been attained, keeping in mind the additional matters 


168 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


of form involved in written composition. In the third and 
fourth grades it is sufficient to note if the story is interesting 
from the start; if it is told in clear sentences; if facts are 
given in their right order; if the best words have been used ; 
and if arrangement on paper, spelling, capitalization, and 
punctuation are correct. 

Have in some convenient place a list of the features that 
are to be considered in estimating the worth of a composition, 
and have them considered one at a time when criticizing. 

As already suggested, compositions worthy to serve as 
tentative models should be preserved and kept where the 
children can readily refer to them from time to time. As the 
power to criticize increases, compositions may be compared 
with these models, and definite reasons why they are not so 
good, why they are as good, or why they are better, may be 
given. 

Home-made measuring scales are very useful. For a brief 
consideration of these and of standard tests and measure- 
ments, see Chapter Eleven. 


PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 


The function of punctuation and capitalization. From the 
outset, punctuation and capitalization should be regarded 
solely as a means of helping the reader. Just as the inflec- 
tions of the voice make it easy to grasp the meaning of the 
spoken word, so in writing, capitals make certain that im- 
portant words stand out prominently, and punctuation marks 
serve to group words in ways that make it easy to catch the 
thought. It has already been shown that the capital that 
begins a sentence and the mark that ends it serve to show 
clearly the limits of the sentence. As the eye sweeps along 
the line, it finds and interprets these familiar waymarks. 
Other marks have equally important functions. The im- 
portant thing is to teach a new technicality when the need for 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 169 


it develops. The pupil then appreciates its full significance 
because he is using it for a necessary purpose. 

Writing dates. Every child was probably taught in the 
first grade — certainly in the second — to write his full 
address, and he recognizes the commas used as marks that set 
off the parts of the address from one another. The use of 
commas in writing dates may be taught when the children 
begin to save their written work, since it will be desirable to 
know the order in which the compositions were written so 
that improvement may easily be noted. The motive for 
writing dates having been established, there is little to learn. 
The name of the month must be spelled accurately, and the 
day of the month must be set off from the year in order to 
avoid confusion. Much practice at first is essential. Accu- 
racy, and the habit of putting in the comma when the place 
where it belongs is reached, will result much more surely from 
writing the date several times in one exercise than from writ- 
ing it once on several successive days. Clinch new knowledge 
of this sort, and transform knowledge into an expression 
habit, by abundant drill at the outset. When a pupil can 
write the date accurately and promptly, have him put it on 
all his written work. 

The method of contrast in teaching punctuation. The 
method of contrast is well illustrated in connection with the 
apostrophe. The apostrophe will early be taught in con- 
tractions as a substitute for the letter or letters omitted. 
Later, when the children’s needs make it desirable for them 
to use the apostrophe in possessives, the logical method is 
to begin with the use already learned. Take, for instance, 


a sentence containing a contraction and a possessive : Me De 


The Dutch boy’s clothing isn’t like ours. 


The contraction will be explained, and then ask if the other 
word also contains a short form, or contraction. If the pupils 


170 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


are given time to study the matter, some will invariably 
discover that the first word containing an apostrophe is not a 
contraction. Then begin a search for the reason for its use, 
and with skillful questioning the children will discover what 
it is. Show that the name of the object owned often imme- 
diately follows the word denoting ownership. 

The common method of having for drill a list of sentences 
each of which contains a possessive, is not likely to produce 
thought. It seems better, whenever using the method of con- 
trast, to give drill sentences using the apostrophe both in the 
familiar way and in the new manner. It then becomes neces- 
sary to think at each step, and it is this thinking that fixes 
in the mind the new fact to be learned. After that, much 
drill in using the possessive form will help to establish the 
habit. 


LETTER WRITING 


An advanced step in letter writing. The simplest note 
form alone has so far been considered. When this form is 
thoroughly fixed in the mind and the habit of using it is 
established, the full letter form may be taught. 

One profitable and interesting way to introduce the sub- 
ject is to have a conversation lesson on sending letters with 
the help of the post office. Let the children tell all that they 
know about the subject — how the letters are collected, what 
happens to them before they are sent away, and how they are 
distributed. Bring out then the fact that the person receiv- 
ing a letter must know exactly how to address the answer. 
For this reason, whether or not that person already has the 
information, it is customary to put the address of the writer 
at the very beginning of the letter, and in precisely the 
form which the person replying to the letter needs to use. 
Bring out also the desirability of knowing when a letter was 
written. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 171 


There is nothing new in the heading, for the children will 
already have learned to write their addresses and dates. The 
chief difficulty lies in arranging the details of the heading in a 
correct and pleasing way. Here again good models to con- 
sult, and unfailing care in following them, are the solution. 
If the children practiced at first only when they actually 
wrote a letter, the right habit would be formed very slowly. 
It is a good plan, immediately after teaching the complete 
letter form, to let the children daily for a week write a letter 
that is a skeleton as far as the body is concerned. Of course, 
each child will write his own heading, that being the only 
one that concerns him. Here is a form that may be used as a 
model : 

110 Wilson Street 
Brooklyn, New York 


December 8, 1925 
Dear Mary, 


ave @) Opel a @ @) ie) 6 oF a) 6 6 8 € © © 6 6.6 4. ¢ 6 66 © eh 6 © 0 6 ‘ee ole 6 6 oF .0)e, 656) «ea! feo: a) @ je )%0 
Prana serie a Lae ete gee Ne wi ae Sle ye va le, wie ye 6, 6 wile le re ejia s,s oe wel @ @fe ee 8d rie ah 
Rie ae eh wie ww cee G's fe ¢ue 16) € 0) 6.18) 0) # ese, @ 6&6 'o 60. © 6. a) 0 “ere. e 6a Oe Ve) el we wee 
Seen wetter ie Tea (a 6).aie 16) 6 lag hee eo Wee Ne) kOe ae elie ew elie 6 Bree 6 dirs) Weel wy wh ale enlweh © 


Your true friend, 
Jennie E. Smith 


Writing letters of several paragraphs. All oral and writ- 
ten composition, thus far considered, has been limited to a 
single paragraph. This should remain the rule throughout 
the third and fourth grades for both oral and written stories, 
but letters should not be restricted in this way, except in the 
case of simple invitations or notes limited by the nature of 
their subject. 

The child has been taught that only sentences that help 
each other tell a story should be included in a paragraph, 


172 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


and he has learned to select subjects that can be interestingly 
handled in a single paragraph. But in real life people do not 
write letters about one narrow phase of a subject. Indeed, 
the average friendly letter is concerned with a variety of sub- 
jects, each of interest to the writer and presumably to the 
person addressed. It has well been said by critics that the 
one-paragraph letters children are sometimes trained to write 
in school are types of very undesirable letters. 

The fact is that a paragraph in a letter is not precisely what 
it is in any other composition. In ordinary narrative there 
may be a number of paragraphs, and each is a true paragraph 
in that it deals with one phase of the larger subject. But 
there is the closest relation between the paragraphs them- 
selves. This type of paragraph work the children will study 
later. The paragraphs of a letter may relate to entirely 
different subjects, each having its own section of the 
letter. A boy away from home may write to his mother 
in one paragraph about his journey, in another about an 
ocean bath, and ina third about the condition of his clothes. 
In spite of the mixture of topics, the letter may be a good 
one. 

When the children are ready for this step in the fourth 
grade, explain to them that when people meet socially they 
talk about different experiences, and in the same way when 
they write to each other, they have various matters to write 
about. The important thing is that when the subject 
changes, there must be a new paragraph. Each of these 
paragraphs is more or less completely independent of the 
others. A letter like the following may be used as a model, 
or better, a real letter may be brought to school. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 173 


156 Post Street 
Yonkers, New York 


January 5, 1925 
Dear Bessie, 


Many thanks for your lovely Christmas present. What little 
bird told you that I wanted ‘“‘In the Days of Giants”’ more than any 
other book ? 

Last night we had a terrible storm. It snowed all night and this 
morning the streets are covered with ice. I just saw two little 
children fall. Poor little things! 

Give my dearest love to Uncle John and Aunt Fannie. When 
are you coming to visit us? 

Lovingly, 
Jennie 


The children will quickly grasp the significance of the three- 
paragraph form, and in order that they may write real letters 
rather than school parodies of letters, they should be allowed 
to employ several paragraphs, with the understanding that 
each will be carefully planned just as if it were to be the only 
one. 

Motivating letter writing. Read once more what is said on 
page 38 about motivating notes. In some schools the chil- 
dren are encouraged to write actual letters to friends during 
the school letter-writing lesson, the letters being written under 
the supervision of the teacher. When this is done, the chil- 
dren may bring their stationery from home, if the school does 
not provide it. The practice of occasionally, at least, using 
unruled paper should not be too long delayed, although per- 
haps the fifth grade is early enough to begin it. 


LEARNING TO KEEP A DIARY 


Like adults, children are prone to take more pains when 
what they write is to take permanent form than if it is 
merely an exercise. When the oral language work is well 
advanced in the fourth grade, and the pupils are reporting 


174 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


discoveries they make by using their eyes, diaries are helpful. 
They can be made by folding large sheets of paper, or small 
blank books may be employed. Here the pupil finds a new 
use for writing dates, and investigation of a real diary shows 
that the day of the week as well as the day of the month is 
noted. Show the children a diary, preferably one brought on 
request by a pupil. Develop the idea that diaries are kept to 
note for future reference the important happenings of the 
day. Then let the class once a week, or more often, make a 
record of some unusual experience or of some discovery in 
nature. 

If the teacher thinks best, the diary story may first be writ- 
ten on paper and corrected before it is copied into the diary. 
In such cases the first draft should be handed in with the 
diary, but may be destroyed after the teacher has seen it. 
This is a precaution against careless work that would be 
harmful instead of being a help. 

Here is a fourth-grade diary story: 


TUESDAY, MAY 6, 1925 


This morning on my way to school I found some violets. They 
were the first I have seen. I picked a large bunch of them. Miss 
Smith put them in water. Every little while she smells of them. 
I think she must like them as well as I do. 


ANTICIPATING NEEDS AND DIFFICULTIES 


Preventing mistakes by looking ahead. While only the 
punctuation required is thoroughly taught, it is a good plan 
sometimes to anticipate the use of punctuation marks. The 
comma in a series is a case in point. When writing letters 
at Christmas, nearly every child writes a list of things that 
would be welcome from Santa Claus. Knowing this to be 
the case, the teacher will find it a good plan to put on the 
blackboard a sentence containing such a list correctly punc- 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 175 


tuated, and ask the children to read it aloud. They will note 
the way in which the voice is used in reading the sentence, and 
will then appreciate the fact that the comma does for the 
reader of the sentence what the voice does for the listener. 
If they use such a list in their letters, they can write it as the 
blackboard sentence is written. The same use of the comma 
is sure to develop in spring when reporting in the diaries what 
birds or flowers have been seen. At this time the need may 
again be anticipated. If the children are not given this help, 
it is wise not to refer to the omission of the comma when 
criticizing the compositions. As a rule, only those matters 
that have been thoroughly taught should be criticized. 

Another case of anticipation is concerned with the use of 
quotation marks to indicate the titles of books. If children 
have been interested in reading, and some attention has been 
given to the books they read at home, it frequently happens 
that they name books either in their Christmas letters or in 
their letters of thanks after Christmas. For this reason it is 
a good plan to write a sentence containing a title on the black- 
board, in order that the children who wish to use titles in their 
letters may copy the form. 

Teaching the use of quotation marks in direct quotations. 
The use of quotation marks in writing direct quotations is 
generally taught unnecessarily early. Children rarely use 
direct discourse, and as they have no genuine need for the 
use of quotation marks in this way, the whole process appears 
to them artificial, and the marks are rarely used correctly. 
In the thousands of compositions referred to at the beginning 
of this chapter, there were few cases in which the marks were 
correctly used below the highest grades, and many mistakes 
were made there. In lower grades there was evident merely a 
superficial acquaintance with the marks. 

Not until the use of direct quotations is introduced as a 
definite step in story-telling, a step designed to secure the 


176 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


greater life and vivacity that always characterize the quota- 
tion of a person’s exact words, is it necessary to teach the use 
of quotation marks. But long before that time they may be 
interpreted, and when this is done, say toward the end of the 
fourth year, the foundation for intelligent use is laid. At the 
same time the pupils learn the meaning of the marks that 
they have been seeing ever since they began to read. They 
understand their use in books long before they try to make use 
of them in their written work. Asa consequence, they under- 
stand the marks more fully than when the class is required, 
as in so many schools, to use them in the course of practically 
the first lesson in which they are mentioned. 

If the language textbook does not provide for this method of 
attack on quotation marks, it will be a good plan to take a 
lesson in the reader which contains conversation carried on in 
fairly short sentences. After a little questioning on the part 
of the teacher, some bright children will for themselves dis- 
cover, partially at least, the function of the marks. But all 
children can be led to see that as a rule the sentences contain 
a part that gives the exact words that some one else used, and 
a part that simply explains. Then lead them to see that the 
part that gives the words of another person is indicated in 
three ways: it begins with a capital letter, even though it 
is not at the beginning of the sentence; it is set off from the 
explaining part of the sentence by one or two commas; and 
it is enclosed in quotation marks. After this have much prac- 
tice in explaining quotation marks as used in books, training 
the children to look always for the three special signs that 
mark the quoted words. Children like to do this and it pre- 
pares them for using the marks correctly when the time comes. 
Observation is always a good starting point. It is, in fact, 
the scientific way : first, observation ; second, interpretation ; 
and lastly, application. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 177 


THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ORAL AND WRITTEN WORK 


Because in life most people talk much more than they 
write, it is argued that relatively much less time should be 
given to written work than to oral. While this is true, it 
should be borne in mind that there is no necessary relation 
between the practical importance of an activity and the time 
required to master it. As a matter of fact, the difficulties 
involved in expressing thought in writing are so varied and 
perplexing, that without much practice in the early stages 
little progress is made. Many successful teachers have found 
that the custom of requiring each day one written exercise, 
short but definite, pays big dividends. Sometimes it may be 
a composition written in the English period; sometimes a 
description or an explanation or a suggestion connected with 
projects that are being worked out; sometimes a paragraph of 
two or three sentences answering a question concerned with 
some other subject. The important consideration is to make 
written expression a natural and agreeable means of commu- 
nicating thought. This end may be achieved by daily written 
exercises that are motivated, short, and as interesting as 
possible, if the teacher infuses life into the work and accepts 
from the start only the best that it is in the individual’s 
power to produce. 


REMINDERS AND SUGGESTIONS 


Here are a few general suggestions : 


1. Little has been said about the textbook in this chapter, because 
it is difficult to show how to use textbooks in general when presenting 
special methods. But the book should be used to the limit of its 
possibilities. Interpreting directions is in itself valuable self-help 
work, and, as pointed out in discussing the importance of the book, 
the pupil should be trained to independent study whenever possible. 
Supplement only when necessary to produce the results you are 
aiming to secure. Remember that the textbook is your co-teacher. 


178 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


2. The value of copying a composition that is not satisfactory is 
a subject on which opinions differ. Very good results have been 
achieved by never asking a pupil to copy a composition except in 
the case of carelessness. If a pupil has not done his best, he should 
be taught the wisdom of making suitable first efforts by being re- 
quired to do his work as well as he can before dropping it. IEfitisa 
question, however, of other matters, the desired improvement will 
probably be more quickly secured, and with less discouragement, 
if the pupil is asked to write a new composition. 

8. Train children to think each sentence through before writing a 
word of it. 

4. Try to arouse pride in honest work and in constant improve- 
ment. It is a good plan at intervals to ask the pupils themselves to 
report on their progress, as Judged by the standards that have been 
set up by the class. See all that relates to written composition in 
the chapter on “Self-Help Activities” that has any application to 
the work discussed in this chapter. Read Chapter Eleven. 

5. Do not be discouraged if improvement is slow. This is usu- 
ally inevitable. 

6. Never lose from sight the practical advantage of avoiding 
rather than correcting. 

7. Keep in mind the rights of the very bright pupils. Allow 
them to drop any work that they do exceedingly well. Let the group 
of good workers take charge of the bulletin board, or let them criti- 
cize the work of their comrades while the teacher is engaged with 
the slower pupils. 

8. Above all, remember that the power to write should be applied 
when it is demanded by some special situation. The formal com- 
position lesson affords an opportunity for teaching a principle. The 
principle should be applied in meeting genuine needs. It is probably 
true that the richer the school life, the more self-active the pupils, 
and the more accustomed to free expression of ideas, the less formal 
composition work there will be. The written work required by 
the varied activities in which the pupils are engaged will offer 
abundant opportunities for expression, and writing will become a 
necessary, and therefore an appreciated, means of communication. 


For TuHouGut AND Discussion 


1. What projects or other activities of your class will afford oppor- 
tunities for writing genuine letters? Make a list of these opportuni- 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 179 


ties so that you will not overlook any. Why is writing a genuine 
letter a more valuable experience for the pupil than writing simply 
for practice? Is practice ever a legitimate motive for writing let- 
ters? If it is, should the pupil be conscious that he is having a 
habit-forming experience? Why, or why not? 

2. In what ways may writing original stories be motivated ? 

3. Compare your methods of correcting the written work of your 
pupils with those used by other teachers whom you know. Which 
method throws upon the pupil the most responsibility? What 
evils may result from marking all mistakes on a pupil’s paper? 
What are the advantages of requiring a pupil to find and correct 
his own mistakes as far as possible? What are the advantages of 
forming small groups of pupils each of whom shall first carefully 
revise his own written work, and then go over the work of his com- 
rades before the compositions are passed to the teacher? What 
disadvantages may such a system have with young children unless 
it is supervised to a certain extent by the teacher? 

4. Discuss with other teachers the possibility of making a home- 
made measuring scale for use in your grade. Read Chapter Eleven. 
Are you using diagnostic tests and drill tests? They will often help 
you to discover and to overcome a poor English habit that otherwise 
might escape your attention. 


For READING AND STUDY 
STANDARDS 


Manonety. Standards in English. World Book Company. 

SHERIDAN. Speaking and Writing English. Benjamin H. Sanborn 
& Co. 

Course of Study of Baltimore County. Warwick & York, Inc. 


METHODS 


Consult all the books of method listed on pages 155 and 156, and 
also the following : 


Brown. How the French Boy Learns to Write. Harvard University 
Press. 

GoutpwassEeR. Method and Methods in the Teaching of English. 
D. C. Heath & Co. (Read the chapter dealing with letter writing.) 


Consult the lists at the close of Chapters Ten and Eleven. 


CHAPTER EIGHT 


COMPOSITION IN THE FirrH AND SIxTH GRADES 


INTRODUCTION 


Plan of this chapter. In discussing the English work of 
the third and fourth grades, oral and written composition 
were considered in separate chapters. This distinction is not 
made, however, in dealing with composition in the higher 
grades. The basic principles of each mode of expression 
having been taught, oral and written composition advance 
hand in hand somewhat as they do in the classroom. 

Relation of this chapter to what has preceded and to later 
chapters. This chapter is based on all that precedes it. It 
also presupposes the reading of later chapters. The teacher 
who is making a thorough study of the work of the fifth and 
sixth grades might well adopt the following plan: 


1. Review Chapters Two, Six, and Seven, in order to have in 
mind the work of all preceding grades. 

2. Review Chapter Three to recall the functions of the teacher 
in the self-help study process, the functions of the textbook, and 
methods of independent study. 

3. Review Chapter Four in order that the self-help activities 
there described may constantly be applied. These activities are 
frequently mentioned in this chapter, but there is no repetition of 
methods for developing them. When, for instance, notebooks are 
referred to in this chapter, it is expected that the teacher will turn 
back to Chapter Four and study the methods suggested for prepar- 
ing and keeping notebooks. In the same way, references to the 
dictionary, the textbook, reference books; to vocabulary building ; 
to criticism, and so on, should at once stimulate to a review of these 
topics. 

4. Review Chapter Five. As suggested in that chapter, correct- 
usage drills should occur daily. The language habits of the class 
are revealed whenever they speak or write. The needs being known, 
the methods of Chapter Five, or others as effective, should be used 
until the correct form has taken the place of the incorrect. 

180 


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COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 181 


5. Study carefully Chapter Ten. Throughout the year utilize 
to the utmost all opportunities for informal language training. 

6. Study Chapter Eleven in order to get suggestions for measuring 
regularly and as accurately as possible the composition power of 
your pupils. If you are ambitious and wish to use standardized 
composition scales, make a thorough study of the subject, and if 
possible get some expert to give you the necessary training in apply- 
ing the scale. In any case, make provision for at least a home-made 
scale and for using the English practice tests for diagnostic and drill 
purposes. 


DISCOVERING CLASS AND INDIVIDUAL NEEDS 


The function of the earliest lessons. The teacher begin- 
ning work with a new class naturally seeks first to explore the 
minds of her pupils in order to discover what foundation 
exists for the work she hopes to do. In a general way she 
knows what habits and skills the pupils should have acquired, 
but a long vacation is an exceedingly distracting experience, 
and she will find that much that is essential has grown vague, 
if it has not actually been forgotten. 
In the fifth grade the teacher may well enlist the pupils 
themselves in determining the strong and the weak points of 
the class as a whole and of its individual members. The 
ideals cultivated in the lower grades and the critical power | 
there developed make it possible for the pupils to do this y, P way} 
work under the direction of the teacher. Be sure that the by 
pupils understand that they are to discover the weak spots of yah phan 
the English work in order that these spots may be strength- 
ened before taking up new phases of composition. The first 
few weeks may well be devoted to the project. 
Setting up a temporary composition standard. Oral com- 
position makes a good starting point for investigation. Asa 
means of refreshing the minds of the pupils on the characteris- 
tics of a good composition, to help new pupils who may not 
have had good training in lower grades, and to furnish a tempo- 
rary standard by which the oral compositions may be judged, a 


182 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


class composition is valuable. A picture lesson is particularly 
appropriate because the discussion involved in reading and 
interpreting the picture reveals clearly the power of the class 
to apply in informal conversation what has been taught them 
in the more formal lessons. 

When the picture has been discussed and agreement has 
been reached as to the point of view from which the story 
shall be told, a title may be chosen and written on the black- 
board by the teacher, or, better still, by a competent pupil. 
The story will then be built up sentence by sentence, many ~~ 
suggestions being obtained at each step. The sentence 
approved in each case by a majority of the class will be used. 
The story should be no longer than those that individual 
pupils will be expected to tell. One paragraph is the ideal. 

Setting up a limit to the number of sentences is a common 
practice that is at least questionable. 'The mind does not 
always work smoothly and freely when so restricted. Asa 
rule, compositions of the desired length should be secured by 
the selection of subjects that can be treated in an interesting 
way in a narrow compass, and by training pupils to hold 
closely to their subjects. While the teacher may have in 
mind compositions of six or seven sentences, it may easily 
happen that some compositions will contain but four or 
five sentences, while others will contain eight or more. 

When the story has been written on the blackboard, the Ps 
children should read it as a whole, and if possible improve it 
in interest, in sentence structure, in vocabulary, and in the 
order in which the facts are related. This is often necessary 
in a story that has been worked out in piecemeal fashion. 
The completed story should then remain on the blackboard to 
serve as a temporary standard for judging the individual 
stories that are to be told. 

Finding the strong and the weak points in oral composition. 
Several days may well be devoted to telling interesting vaca- 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 183 


tion experiences, anecdotes from books read, or facts learned 
by observation. The children should think out their stories 
in advance, trying to give them the good features of the 
standard story. When astory has been told, the class should 


criticize it, purely as an act of social service, telling first what =<. 


is good and then what may be improved. Review what has 
been said about criticism in earlier chapters. 

At the last, one feature to be at once improved by the 
story-teller should be selected. This will give each pupil a 
definite aim, and something by which to measure improve- 
ment. When each pupil has told two or three stories, not 
only should the individual needs have been discovered, but 
the predominant weakness of the class as a whole should have 
been revealed. With definite aims thus set up, teacher and 
pupils are ready to go to work intelligently for growth in oral 
composition skill. 

Finding the strong and the weak points in written composi- 
tion. Itis always a good plan for a teacher to have on hand a 
set of compositions that represent satisfactory work at the 
beginning of the year. These compositions should be classi- 
fied into three or four groups according to their merit, and 
be used as temporary standards. Without this precaution, 
the composition ability of her class at the close of the preced- 
ing year may influence the teacher’s judgment of the abilities 
of her new pupils. 

The qualities of the standard compositions should be dis- 
cussed in detail, so that every pupil will appreciate their good 
features and recognize those that are not good. They will 
then realize why each composition is in the class in which it 
has been placed, and be able to judge their own compositions 
and those of their mates. 

Devote several days to written composition, having the 
papers judged by the pupils themselves. Several pupils 
should rate each composition, and these pupils should ulti- 


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184 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


mately agree upon the class to which each composition shall 
be assigned. In addition, the weak points of each composi- 
tion should be definitely pointed out so that the writer may 
recognize the strengthening of these points as his first respon- 
sibility in written composition. 

A composition written early in the year should be copied 
into the notebook, and this composition will serve as a means 
of noting improvement. While constantly comparing his 
compositions with the standards, each pupil should be strug- 
gling to surpass his own previous accomplishment, keeping in 
mind the special aim that the class has helped him to set up. 
Start the year by treating careless work as the one unpardon- 
able evil. 

Dictation as a means of discovering weak points. Since a 
pupil may write a number of compositions without having 
occasion to apply some principle of capitalization and punc- 
tuation previously learned, dictation exercises may be used to 
review all technical matters taught in lower grades. The 
teacher should note the errors made, and in subsequent dic- 
tation lessons give sufficient drill to correct these. 

Precautions for securing correct letter forms. In order 
that each pupil may have a letter, perfect in form, to which he 
may refer at any time, early in the year one letter should be 
copied into the notebook after the teacher and several pupil 
critics report that it is free from mistakes and that it has the 
main qualities of a good letter. The children should be 
reminded that no letter can be accepted that does not conform 
to established usage, and they should form the habit of con- 
sulting the notebook model whenever a letter is to be written. 
Like all other written work, letters should be so carefully 
prepared that little time will be required for criticizing tech- — 
nical matters. This will leave teacher and pupils free to 
concentrate the attention on improving the expression of the 
thought — that is, free to make constructive criticism. 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 185 


Discovering individual and class errors of usage. The 
pupils should take the responsibility of noting for a definite 
period of time what common errors are made in the class. 

For the method, see Chapter Five. The most common errors 
should be selected for insistent attack day after day, the. 
children often helping to make the sentences that will be re- / 
peated during the five-minute drills. Each child should also ““”” 


Of 


un 


discover what his own worst habits are, and write in the 4“ 


proper section of his notebook sentences containing the right es ha ws 


forms. If the pupils find it hard to remember to review these /, bah 
sentences daily, arrange groups of two or three pupils who ’, y pr 
will at some convenient time hear each other read the note-_ , 
book sentences. pr rt 
In all this work of discovering the needs of class and indi- 
viduals in order that they may be attacked and conquered, 
the pupils should realize that the struggle is their own and 
not the teacher’s, and that they must use self-help methods 
that enable them to assume the responsibility. And the 
discussion of these self-help methods — review, the diction- 
ary, notebooks, using the eyes and ears, criticisms, building 
up serviceable vocabularies, and organizing teams — will 
provide valuable conversation lessons. 
It may once more be urged that the pupils be not allowed to 
gain the impression that the improvement they are seeking to 
make is to be manifested solely in the composition class. It 
is a good plan frequently to measure improvement by the 
English used in other subjects. Although it is not possible 
to give close attention to the English in every recitation, even 
though outstanding faults are corrected, it is possible to do so 
every day in one recitation other than composition. If the 
subjects are changed day after day, no one subject will lose 
noticeably either in interest or in the amount of ground 
covered because of this good-English practice. In any case, 
the English must not be neglected. 


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i186, SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


. A 
er P e . . . 
._ \ * New composition ideals. As soon as the year’s work is 


well under way, each pupil keeping definitely in mind his own 
individual needs and striving by self-help methods to meet 
them both for his own sake and for the honor of the class, 
new ideals, discussed in the following section, may be set up, 
one at a time. This ideal becomes for the time being the 
special aim, although all previous ones will also remain con- 
stantly in mind. 


ADVANCED STEPS IN COMPOSITION 


Sticking to the point. Of course the pupils have been 
trying to stick to the point ever since they began to tell 
stories from limited subjects; but in the fifth grade a great 
advance can be made over previous effort, and the process can 
be made more deliberately a conscious one. Talk to the 
children about the sportsman who aims at a target and allows 
nothing to swerve his attention from it, and then train them to 
apply the same method to their composition effort. 

The comparative method is most useful. The following 
composition, or a similar one produced in the class, may be 
written on the blackboard : 


My Last VAcATION 


Aunt Alice did such a lovely thing last summer. She took me to 
New Hampshire for the entire vacation. Some very nice girls lived 
near her, and I enjoyed playing with them. We took walks, went 
wading in the brook, and played in the hay. One morning another 
girl and I had an exciting game of croquet. I came home when 
school opened. 


Ask the children first of all to tell what is good about this 
composition. The fact that it is told in clear sentences that 
do not join too many thoughts will at once be noticed. Then 
ask what the point of the story is — that is, what one clear 
picture Jennie, the writer of the composition, wished to leave 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 187 


in her classmates’ minds. They will quickly discover that the 
story has no point, and that therefore Jennie could not stick 
to it. Upon being asked what experience referred to would 
make a good story, the exciting game of croquet will almost 
certainly be chosen by a majority. Then put on the black- 
board the following composition evolved by Jennie with the 
help of her classmates : 


How I Won an Excitinc GAME oF CROQUET 


Last summer I won the most exciting game of croquet I ever 
played. Fannie Williams and I were well matched, and were both 
trying to make the last two wickets. My ball was in a perfect 
position. Bang! came Fannie’s ball and sent mine flying. She 
then made both wickets but missed the stake. My heart was in my 
mouth when I tried to hit her ball from the other end of the court. 
But I did it! I then made both wickets and my ball just grazed the 
stake. I had won the game! 


Have the compositions carefully compared until the pupils 
see clearly that in the second Jennie was trying to make her 
classmates see clearly the exciting game of croquet. She had 
a point, and she stuck to it. 

Compare then the titles of the two stories, and draw out 
the fact that it would be impossible to tell a short, pointed _ 
story about the first. Note also that the second is limited to ~ 
one phase of the summer’s experience, and that it at once 
arouses interest by suggesting the point of the story. 

Avoiding unnecessary beginning and ending sentences. 
Not only should the pupils be taught to aim at a target, but 
they should be trained to get to the point as quickly as possi- 
ble. This involves the elimination of unnecessary beginning 
sentences. Take, for instance, the following composition of a 
sixth-grade boy: 

Last summer I went to the seashore. It was very pleasant there. 


I went in bathing every day. One morning I was caught in a rip 
tide. The life guard saw that I was being carried out to sea and 


188 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


plunged into the surf. After a hard struggle he reached me. I was 
unconscious when he pulled me ashore, but after a while I was as 
well as ever. That life guard is one of my heroes now. 


The boy who told this story had a thrilling experience to 
relate, but he used several ineffectual sentences to introduce 
the episode. None of these sentences would arouse interest 
in the listeners. Show how much better the story would be 
if the near-tragedy were earlier hinted at. Let the pupils 
suggest what sentences should be dropped, and then frame 
good opening sentences. Something like the following might 
be secured after free discussion of the problem: 


One morning last summer I came very near taking my last swim. 
I went out too far and was caught by — etc. 


Getting to the point in letter writing. When children first 
begin to write letters in school, they are not likely to use the 
banal introductory sentences employed by so many older 
letter writers. Later, however, probably through imitation 
of letters that they receive or letters that they see, the prac- 
tice makes its appearance. It should be throttled at once. 

Show not only the uselessness, but the actual absurdity, of 
such opening sentences as the following : 

I thought I would write you a letter. 

I will now take my pen in hand. 

As I have nothing else to do, etc. (Uncomplimentary as well as 
useless.) 


At the same time, useless ending sentences may be ban- 
ished. Show that sentences like the following add to the 
length of the letter, while they diminish its interest and force: 

As I have nothing more to say, I will close. 

/ Now I must close. 
/ This is all for the present. 

Until useless beginning and ending sentences have dis- 
appeared from the class compositions and letters, keep this 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 189 


point in mind for special criticism by teacher and pupils. 


Emphasize the importance of having a point, getting to 1 


quickly, and sticking to it, whenever telling stories, when 
explaining how things are done or made, and when discussing 
projects that are under way. Show also the practical value 
of these characteristics when applying for a situation, when 
trying to convince other people, or when getting a hearing 
from a business man whose time is money. 

Using direct quotations. The simple fundamentals of 
composition having been taught, much may be done definitely 
to improve style. In relating personal experiences, in telling 
anecdotes to the class, in writing familiar letters, children 
often quote other people, but as a rule do so indirectly. The 


induce the habit of using them to enliven narrative and to 
have them written correctly. It was suggested that in the 
fourth grade the pupils be trained to understand direct quo- 
tations, and to explain fully and clearly the punctuation 
required in writing them. This having been done, using quo- 
tations as a forward step in story-telling may be begun in the 
fifth grade. 

The method of contrast is useful here as in so many other 
situations. Put before the pupils two paragraphs, one told 
in direct and the other in indirect discourse, in order to show 
how much more lively and entertaining the direct-quotation 
narrative is. Take the following compositions, for instance: 


My Fricut at A SCARECROW 


One evening, just at dusk, I went to the shed for some wood. 
When I came back, what do you think Isaw? In the garden stood 
a man with a dagger in his hand. I ran into the house, screaming 
that there was a man in the garden. Mother went out with me. 
When she saw the man, she laughed and said that it was the scare- 
crow Father had set up to frighten birds. 


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a 
use of direct quotations generally needs to be taught, both to ~ 


190 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


My Fricut at A SCARECROW 


One evening, just at dusk, I went to the shed for some wood. 
When I came back, what do you think Isaw? In the garden stood 
a man with a dagger in his hand. I ran into the house, screaming, 
**Mother, Mother, there is a man in the garden!’’ Mother went out 
with me. When she saw the man, she laughed and said, “‘Why, 
my dear, that is the scarecrow your father set up to frighten the 
birds!” 


Both stories tell what the child and the mother said, but 
only one uses the exact words of the speakers. The children 
will appreciate the added force and life that the direct quo- 
tations give the second composition. The study of quotations 
being motivated in this way, plenty of practice will serve 
first of all to form the habit of using direct quotations in the 
oral stories, and then to transfer this skill to written stories. 

Much drill will be necessary to enable the pupils always to 
distinguish between direct and indirect quotations. The 
well-known habit of considering as direct quotations words 
that follow He said, and the like, must be avoided from the 
start. It helps children, when they are uncertain, to imagine 
themselves to be the speaker, and to express the quoted state- 
ment in the precise words of the speaker. 

On the mechanical side, dictation helps. And since all 
children like fun, humorous anecdotes are valuable for this 
purpose. After a good laugh, the average child works with 
zeal. Anecdotes like the following may be used: 


_ A lady and her little daughter were at luncheon. “These little 
fish are often eaten by larger fish,”’ said the mother. ‘“‘But how do 
the fish open the cans, Mother ?”’ asked Mary. 


Explain to the pupils that it is allowable to write a short 
anecdote in one paragraph, even though it contains quota- 
tions, but that it is better to put the words of each speaker in 


AL parted 40 


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COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 191 


a separate paragraph if the conversation contains more than 
a single remark on each side. 

This will be the time also to teach the use of the comma in 
setting off from the rest of the sentence the name of the per- 
son spoken to, yes, and no when it means the opposite of yes. 
It helps children to realize that it is only when writing direct 
quotations that this punctuation is necessary, but that it 
must never be omitted when it is needed. Train them to 
think in advance whether or not the composition or letter is 
to contain direct quotations, and to be on their guard accord- 
ingly. Above all, cultivate a feeling of responsibility by 
overlooking no mistake in writing quotations, since the pupil 
has permission to refer to his language book whenever he uses 
this troublesome, but effective, mode of expression. He 
should do this until he makes no mistakes, and with the 
thorough preliminary work suggested, mistakes are usually 
avoidable. 

Using exact language. The failure to use exact language 
is manifested in all lines of school work. Take the matter 
of definition, for instance. A boy in a geography lesson 
referred to a separator. Another child asked what a sepa- 
rator was. The boy replied, “A separator is when you 
take the cream off the milk.’? What the boy needed to do 
was to substitute for the unfamiliar word separator a common 
word that all understood. Is a separator a person, a kind of 
spoon, a machine, or what? The boy who tried to define the 
word decided that it is a machine, and therefore used this 
word in his definition: “‘ A separator is a machine that takes 
the cream off the milk.” 

Having in mind the many occasions in school and out of 
school when making one’s point depends on the exact use of 
language, try to arouse enthusiasm and skill in making clear 
pictures with words. Explaining how something was made 
or done gives valuable practice. A boy has made a coaster, 


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, 492 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


/, } ; 
/for instance. Let him stand before the class and tell in 


explicit language how he made it. The test will le in the 
comprehension of the explanation by his classmates. If the 
directions are so clear that the listeners could make a coaster 
of the same kind by following the instructions, the explanation 
is good. If any point is not clear, questions should be asked, 
and the directions repeated in a more intelligible form. 

Explaining the solution of a problem in the arithmetic 
class also demands clear, exact language. In fact, the 
opportunities for training in this important particular are 
abundant, and should be utilized. Describing is invaluable 
as a means of securing the accurate use of words. 

Here is a description that makes a clear word picture: 


A boy is standing inaswing. He has twined his arms around the 
ropes to hold himself fast. In one hand he holds a small cup. In 
the other is a clay pipe with which he is blowing soap bubbles. The 
bubbles float lazily in the air. A little black dog, as light as a soap 
bubble, is trying to get into the swing. 


On the opposite page is an artist’s picture of the same scene. 
The cut and the word picture are identical. Require the 
pupils to describe in the same clear way any pictures that are 
available. It often adds interest to use the same picture first 
for description, when only what is actually seen is mentioned, 
and then for story-telling, an exercise that necessitates the use 
of the imagination. A story about the picture on page 193 
would be concerned with the boy’s reasons for blowing bub- 
bles in so inconvenient a position. The imagination pictures 
the boy blowing the bubbles as he sits on the ground, the 
playful dog’s successful efforts to burst the bubbles, the boy’s 
desire to see them float off undisturbed into space, and his 
consequent leap into the swing. 

It is good practice to select a picture and ask part of the 
class to describe it and the others to tell a story about it. 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 193 





194 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Each group will be eager to see if the members of the other 
group have encroached on their preserves. To learn to 
distinguish between what he actually sees, and his more or 
less accurate interpretation of what he sees, is an important 
lesson for the pupil. Many a child at home or at school, as 
well as many a man or woman in the witness box, uncon- 
sciously renders false testimony simply because he does not 
make the distinction. 

Learning to understand the use of paragraphs. In order 
to illustrate once more how children would study a composi- 
tion lesson from the textbook, the significance of the para- 
graph in composition other than letter writing is presented 
below as it is given in a textbook. 


PARAGRAPH STUDY 


Do you remember that you began to study quotations 
by noticing how they were written in books? You did 
not use direct quotations in your own stories until you 
fully understood how they were written. You will follow 
the same plan in studying stories of several paragraphs. 

In what form of composition have you sometimes used 
several paragraphs? Why was it not necessary for these 
paragraphs to tell about the same subject ? 

The paragraphs in other compositions than letters, 
however, must all relate to the same subject. Read the 
following story : 


Lappie’s Last Fire 


For twenty years Laddie had helped draw a fire engine. Now 
he was old and doing duty in the park department. 

One morning, harnessed to a light buggy, Laddie was hitched 
in front of an office building. His head hung drowsily. Per- 
haps he was dreaming of the happy days when his strength and 
speed were the boast of Fire Company No. 8. 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 195 


Suddenly the fire chief’s runabout dashed past, followed by an 
engine and a hook-and-ladder truck. The clanging of bells, the 
roar of motors, and the screams of excited children all helped 
make the noisy confusion that a fire creates in a crowded city. 

Laddie was not drowsy now. His head was proudly erect. 
His ears twitched and his eyes flashed. His feet pawed the 
pavement, but for a moment only. With one swift jerk he was 
free and was dashing up the street. The buggy swayed from 
side to side, but did not overturn, and soon Laddie, foaming at 
the mouth, but triumphant, drew up beside the puffing engine. 

The fire was already under control, and followed by Laddie, 
the engine started back for the fire house. On the way the old 
horse was spied by his new master, who administered a gentle 
scolding and then drove back to the park stable. But Laddie’s 
ears continued to twitch, and his master knew that he was hap- 
pier for having attended one more fire. 


Read the story silently. What is the title of the story ? ° 
Does the title suggest the point of the story? How 
many paragraphs are there? The first introduces you 
to Laddie. You may call it the introduction. What does 
the second paragraph tell about? the third? the fourth? 
the fifth ? 

Five pupils may tell the story, each giving one para- 
graph. Tell it in your own way, but use some of the 
words of the book that will help you make a clear picture. 
Stick to the point! 

The class may criticize the story-telling. Did any one 
give any facts that belonged in another paragraph ? 


vA 


In the fifth and sixth grades, a majority of the pupils 
should be able to study this lesson with entire independence, 
and come to class prepared to do in a satisfactory manner what 
is required. When the lesson is assigned, a few moments 
may be taken for looking it through, and then all who have no 
questions to ask may be dismissed, or may begin to do the 
work, if the supervised study plan is being followed. The 
remaining pupils will be given an opportunity to raise any 


196 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


questions they desire to ask, each question being answered 
by another pupil if possible. When all understand what is 
required, these pupils also will be dismissed. 

When the class reassembles, several courses are possible, 
but the teacher should always select a plan that will throw 
responsibility on the pupils. The teacher might open the 
discussion by remarking that it is not the purpose of the 
lesson to secure at once compositions of several paragraphs 
from the pupils, and then ask for its real purpose. When 
some one has replied that the purpose of the lesson is to help 
the class to understand paragraphs in stories, another pupil 
may be asked to explain clearly the nature of paragraphs in 
letters. This having been done, the contrast between the 
unrelated paragraphs of many letters and the paragraphs of 
stories may be made, thus clearly setting before the pupils 
the full purpose of the lesson. From this point on the chil- 
dren need very little help. 

Much valuable time is lost in many schools by requiring 
pupils to ask the questions when actual development is 
necessary. But in a lesson like the one under consideration, 
a pupil may take the lead to advantage, since the book lays 
down a course of procedure. The leader may select children 
to read the story, and then may ask the questions, or call on 
children to answer them after they have been read silently. 
It will frequently be necessary to ask questions not given in 
the book. 

Telling what the paragraphs are about may lead to an 
interesting discussion. It is not always an easy thing to do, 
even if the paragraph is well constructed. In the early work 
with paragraphs, it is a good plan to have the children give 
statements instead of topics for the various paragraphs, as 
was recommended in connection with framing titles for 
stories. The topics can then be chosen from the sentences, 
or can be derived from them. 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 197 


The following sentences and topics might be secured in 
this lesson : 


Laddie is introduced. Introduction 

Laddie dreams of old times. Laddie’s dream 

A fire alarm is sounded. The fire alarm 

Laddie goes to the fire. Laddie’s race to the fire 


Laddie tells a secret with his ears. The secret Laddie’s ears told 


When topics have been agreed upon, — not necessarily the 
best topics that could be framed, but the best the class can 
produce after codperative effort, — they may be written on 
the blackboard by a pupil appointed by the leader, and the 
reproduction will follow. 

It is during the reproduction that the teacher has her best 
opportunity to supplement the work of the leader. A sug- 
gestion now and then as to the selection of a word, or an inti- 
mation that a paragraph might be made more picturesque, 
will often help. At the last, before dismissing the class, the 
teacher may ask the children to notice the paragraphs in their 
readers and in all other books, and suggest that the method of 
study they followed with “ Laddie’s Last Fire’’ may be used 
in preparing geography, history, or literature lessons; in 
fact, it may be used in preparing any lesson whose text 
consists of several related paragraphs. 

There should be a good deal of practice in paragraph 
study and in the framing of topics, but it need by no means 
be confined to the composition period. Make sure that the 
children appreciate the fact that paragraph study is a study 
in thinking. Show them how easily they can recall the main . 
facts of several paragraphs if they think what each paragraph 
is about, try to remember the order of the topics, and asso- 
ciate with each topic the main facts of the paragraph con- 
cerned. Perhaps no work done in the elementary school 
contributes more richly to clear, orderly thinking than intel- 


fy i 
__«' 198 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


ligent paragraph work. There is, therefore, abundant oppor- 
tunity for cultivating the paragraph sense without planning 
special lessons for that purpose. Geography, history, and 
literature offer particularly rich fields. 
Vocabulary growth. Vocabulary growth is a valuable and 
natural outcome of all the composition work thus far outlined. 
_ (Lo prepare and give orally or in writing a pointed paragraph ; 
_, © to enliven narrative by the use of direct discourse; to speak 
i. . with exactness; and to analyze matter of several paragraphs, 
. \w .s’ framing topics for each — all these demand a constantly 
WW \, growing vocabulary. Since the pupils are taught to use 
, © reference books, the natural growth of vocabulary that results 
yt 4° from reading must be taken into account. If the child is 
taught to read well, he will get ideas from the printed page. 
These ideas he may afterward express in language contrasting 
| » ‘in a marked way with that employed in the book. This is as 
» .\@ ,itshould be, because not until the pupil has made the thought 
a ¢ his own is it of any value to him, and having made it his own, 
.» _\ he will express it most effectively in words of his own choice. 
al A * It nevertheless remains true that frequently he should recog- 
re nize the fact that the author has used a word or a phrase that 
. is so expressed that he feels like adding it permanently to his 
x) own stock of words. Words so selected, either by the indi- 
® \) vidual or as the result of a class discussion, should be written 
» in the notebooks, and thereafter reviewed with a view to 
. + using them whenever opportunity offers. This is the way 
.in which many a man and woman have built up a vocabulary 
+ ‘of strong, meaningful words. During the fifth and sixth 
grades, when children’s memories are at their best, this matter 
of vocabulary should receive much attention in connection 
la? of * with all subjects. And while many words are being delib- 
. | | ye erately selected for use, many more will be almost uncon- 
»\ \ sciously added to the working vocabulary, even though little 
Bi is said about words. When the attention is specifically and 


Pe 
ie 


re 


: 
« 4 na P eo 
» ‘gt “at nf? we ite 
whe OT At fer et ~ 


f A 
A wre” Uae Le w rhe A | A er ay 
dL ) ee ort Vin ape? 


commosrrr N IN FIFTH AND SIXT GRADES 199 


satethnthy directed to the study of words with a view to 
determining which ones may prove valuable for personal 
use, the vocabulary will grow rapidly. 

Further suggestions on written composition. The para- 
graph study should not be followed immediately by composi- 
tions of several paragraphs. The one-paragraph composition 
on a properly limited subject should remain throughout 
these grades the minimum aim. If a child can write such a 
paragraph with due regard to the selection and arrangement 
of the material used, express his thoughts in well-selected 
words, and prove himself master of the form requirements, he 
will have little trouble later in writing longer compositions 
when they become necessary. The ideal for children of the 
age under consideration is a composition that can be thought 
out, written, and carefully criticized by the writer during a 
study period. In other words, composition assignments 
should be such that a finished job may be expected. The 
one-paragraph composition not only meets these require- 
ments, but also lays a solid foundation for several-paragraph 
compositions later. 

In every case, individual ability and desire must be con- 
sidered. While the aim remains as suggested above for the 
class as a whole, there will be some pupils who will wish to 
write longer compositions. They should not be held back, 
the only demand being that they prove fully able to do the 
work. This ability being demonstrated, there can be no 
good reason for restricting the pupil to the one-paragraph 
composition if he is eager to do more. Composition, almost 
more than any other school activity, lends itself to individual 
rates of progress. 

Here is an exercise that children enjoy and from which they 
learn an important lesson. Let the class prepare for a written 
exercise by discussing orally a picture or a story to be repro- 
duced. They should carefully prepare the outline, and then 


¥ 


¥ 


200 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


assign the topics to different pupils. When the children read 
their contributions to the composite composition, they will 
quickly discover that the paragraphs do not hang together 
well. It then becomes their task to establish connections 
between the paragraphs. ‘This is excellent practice. 


ADVANCED WORK IN LETTER WRITING 


Social letters. So far the pupils have been taught to write 
social letters exclusively, and this class of letters should 
throughout receive the emphasis. 

The avoidance of useless beginning and ending sentences 
has already been considered. Another matter that should 
receive attention in the fifth and sixth grades is considering 

\the interests of the person to whom the letter is written. An 
effective method of approach is to read to the class two 
letters that were written by the same person, but that differ 
because of the differing tastes of the persons to whom they 
were written. The letters of Phillips Brooks are useful for this 
purpose, a letter written from abroad to his little niece being 
contrasted with one written to an older member of the family. 
Or a letter taken from Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His 
Children may be contrasted with one that Roosevelt wrote 
to a friend of about his own age. Children quickly get the 
point, and begin to realize that when they write a letter they 
must seek to interest the person to whom they are writing, 
just as in a social gathering people introduce topics of con- 
versation that they know to be interesting to others in the 
group. 

The exchange of letters with children in other schools of the 
community, or, better still, with children in distant places 
where conditions are different, affords the best possible means 
for training pupils to consider the interests of their corre- 
spondents. They themselves are naturally interested in 
hearing about matters with which they are unfamiliar, and 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 201 


ask about these things. In return they are interested in 
giving the information which their correspondents desire. A 
correspondence of this sort, kept up during the school year, 
not only makes letter writing a genuine experience, but 
arouses interests and stimulates ambitions that otherwise 
would lie dormant. 

Although the occasional writing of letters merely for prac- 
tice is permissible, it will rarely be necessary if all opportuni- 
ties for writing real letters are utilized. If school excursions 


are made to factories or to other places of interest, it will be ~ 


necessary to write to the owners asking permission, and often 
to the street railroad company to secure special cars. There 
will be times when a patriotic address or an address on the 
practical value of using good English is desired, and a letter 
must be written to the person qualified to render the service. 
Later a letter of thanks will be needed. 

Letters of the sort suggested should always be discussed in 
class, in order that each pupil may have the benefit of the 
ideas of his classmates and may obtain the hints and sugges- 
tions that the teacher throws out. Each pupil should then 
write a letter, and a committee of pupils working with the 
teacher should select the best one to be sent. In reporting, 
the committee should note in detail the reasons for their 
choice. 

Business letters. The business letter should be taught 
when the need for writing one arises in the class. The pupils 
may wish to make a class subscription to a magazine; they 
may need to buy seeds for their garden work; they may wish 
to order a book for the school library, the principal having 
delegated to them the responsibility of doing the work re- 
quired. Some of them may wish to apply for work during a 
long vacation, and so on. 

Let us suppose that the principal of the school has given the 
class permission to order a book for the library. The follow- 


f 
f 


wl 


i“ 


ev Fs a: / 
ae ne soar bee ah Me id 


202 ~ SEL HELP atts OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


ing letter form would be worked out in class, each detail 
being thoroughly discussed. The entire letter should be 
carefully compared with the form of a social letter. The 
letter would be signed by the pupil whose copy was chosen to 
be forwarded. 
Roosevelt School 
Pasadena, California 
March 15, 1925 
World Book Company 
Yonkers, New York 

Gentlemen : 

Please send me a copy of “The White Indian Boy.”’ Iam enclos- 
ing a money order for one dollar and twenty cents ($1.20) in payment. 


Very truly yours, 
William B. Sims 


All textbooks give models of business letters, and it is 
therefore unnecessary to give others here. The important 
matters to emphasize are the necessity of having the form 
exactly right; getting directly to the point; using clear, 
courteous, and dignified language; and avoiding any appear- 
ance of carelessness. 

Have the pupils write in their notebooks models of business 
letters, and then train them invariably to refresh their minds 
on matters of form before writing a business letter and to 


~tnake sure that they have made no mistakes before handing 


in the letter or sending it off. An error that might have been 
avoided by using every help available should never be 
excused. Only by enforcing this rule can a teacher secure 
from some pupils the careful work that in time becomes 
habitual. 


OBSERVING AND REPORTING RESULTS 


At the beginning of this chapter the desirability of detecting 
the strong and the weak spots in the composition work of the 
class was pointed out. It is plain that new evidences of 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 203 


strength and new weaknesses will appear from time to time. 
This involves the periodic setting up of fresh aims to meet the 
class and individual needs. In order to develop the habit of 
watching for improvement, the teacher should occasionally 
call for reports of progress. Each pupil should state in clear, 
simple language to what extent he has overcome his bad 
habits by substituting good ones. Use suitable measuring 
scales and teach the children to use them and to record the 
results by means of a graph. Read once more Chapter 
Eleven. 


MAKING THE MOST OF THE GANG INSTINCT 


Read carefully what is said in Chapter Four about organiz- 
ing school teams when the gang spirit develops strongly, as it 
usually does at about sixth-grade age. A teacher who has 
never tried the plan will be astonished to find how large a 
burden of responsibility a team will assume under the stimu- 
lus of competition with other teams. Children like exactness 
in recording results, and marks for team success are striven 
for with almost unbelievable zeal. 

It is difficult to overestimate the social significance of acts 
performed and efforts made for the glory of the team rather 
than for personal reward. Let the captains assume respon- 
sibility for securing the codperation of the members of their 
teams. They will do it, often more quickly and effectively 
than the teacher could. When a pupil realizes that failure is 
to count against the team and rob it of earnestly desired 
marks, he will be very reluctant to encounter the team scorn 
and indignation that often develop in such cases. And if he 
knows that his compositions are to be scrutinized by a group 
of his mates before going to the teacher, and that they will 
invariably come back to him to be copied if they bear evi- 
dences of carelessness, he will usually be philosophical enough 
to do his best in the first place. And the pupil who habitually 


y= 


Ls 


a 


204 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


does his best will experience the joy of helping the team as well 
as himself by his careful work. This is the reward of service 
cheerfully performed. 


SENTENCE STUDY 


Introduction. So far this chapter has been concerned with 
methods of improving the composition as a whole, but the 
use of short, clear sentences has been one of the main aims 
emphasized in criticism. Before the end of the fifth year, the 
average class will have reached a stage of development where 
a more advanced study of the sentence will give a fresh point 
of view and therefore prove helpful and stimulating. 

It is not part of the plan of this book to discuss the pros and 
cons of teaching grammar in the grades. Scientific investi- 
gations have abundantly demonstrated the fact that technical 
grammar may be taught without in the slightest degree 
improving speech. It has never been demonstrated, how- 
ever, that grammar, functionally taught, is the same fruitless 
exercise. On the other hand, many teachers who have taught 
only those principles of grammar that, immediately applied, 
make more intelligent the pupils’ efforts to improve their 
sentence structure and the force and accuracy of their Eng- 
lish, have demonstrated that grammar has several important 
functions that cannot be relegated to other agencies. It is 
this simple, functional grammar that is considered here. 

How sentences are built. One method of attack is to 
lead the pupils to see, first of all, that it pays to understand 
the tools or machines or helps of any sort that one uses. The 
teacher might ask if it is possible for a person to run an auto- 
mobile without understanding its most vital parts. Of course 
every pupil knows that a person can run an automobile under 
such circumstances, but the class will meet the teacher more 
than halfway in supporting the advantage of understanding 
the machine when something goes wrong, or when the driver 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 205 


wishes intelligently to get all possible power from it. Other 
similar illustrations may be discussed, and then the class will 
be ready to be told that the same principle applies to sen- 
tences. They may be used, and constantly are used, without 
an understanding of their construction, but if a person wishes 
to use them to the very best advantage, a knowledge of how 
they are built is very useful. This will serve to motivate 
the grammatical study of the sentence. 

The title suggests itself as a convenient point of departure. 
The pupils have already learned that a title is not necessarily 
a sentence. Often it simply names something. Take, for 
instance, titles like the following, and review what has been 
learned about them: 


My First Party 
George Washington’s Boyhood 
Our “Good-English” Drive f 


The children see that all these titles name something with- 
out directly telling anything. Ask them to make a sentence 
of each by stating something about the thing named. Sen- 
tences like the following will result: 


My first party celebrated my fifth birthday. 
George Washington’s boyhood was passed in the country. 
Our “‘Good-English”’ drive was a great success. 


Have the children then give once more the part of each 
sentence that names something, and the part that tells 
something about the thing named. Then give the terms 
subject and predicate for the parts, and have a good deal of 
practice in giving the subjects and predicates of simple sen- 
tences. Use for this purpose sentences taken from the pupils’ _~ 
own compositions in their notebooks. i 

This preliminary work is quite likely to leave with the 
class the impression that the subject always comes first. 


206 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


This difficulty should be anticipated. Take a sentence like 
the following : 


Ned threw the ball over the fence. 


Ask what different persons and things are mentioned in the 
sentence. Ned, ball, and fence are all named. Then ask 
what fact the predicate states. It states, of course, that some 
person or some thing threw a ball. Who threw the ball, Ned 
or the fence? The answer is obvious, and the subject is 
determined. 

Now take another sentence and have the parts found in the 
same way, by hunting first for the predicate: 


Up the street came the parade. 


Have the children discover that this sentence states that 
some one or something came up the street. What came up the 
street? The answer locates the subject. 

To gain skill in giving subject and predicate, and facility 
in using the new terms, have much practice at the outset. 
One good way is to appoint each day a pupil who before 
school on the following day will write on the bulletin board 
two sentences, one having the subject and the predicate in 
their natural order, and the other employing the inverted 
order: Take a minute at the beginning of each language 
period for having the subjects and the predicates given, and 
for changing the natural order to the inverted, and the 
reverse. 

The knowledge applied. The needs of the pupils should 
determine the exact time when the structure of the sentence 
is taught. It is here recommended for the latter part of the 
fifth grade, because at about that time children who have 
made great progress in using sentences, and seem already 
to have a genuine sentence sense, begin to make certain 
mistakes in sentence structure that may sometimes be due to 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 207 


their very care in the matter. Even though children have 
been in the habit of using short sentences, and possibly have 
developed a somewhat “‘ choppy ” style as a result, at about 
this time, because of increasing maturity and a more or less 
unconscious imitation of good sentences heard or read, or 
because the teacher has commended others for their sentence 
structure, they begin to employ more variety in their 
sentences. And then appears the run-on sentence like the 
following : 


— 


My brother is younger than I am he is much taller. 


When this type of sentence makes its appearance, have the 
children tell how many thoughts it expresses. They will 
readily see that it gives two, and will read the words express- 
ing each. Have them give the subject and the predicate of 
each part to prove that there are in reality two distinct state- 
ments. They know already that it is quite proper to express 
two thoughts in a single sentence, but develop the fact that 
if this is done the two parts of the sentence must be joined. ah 
Let various children suggest how the parts can be joined. 
These forms may be given: 


My brother is younger than I am and he is much taller. 
My brother is younger than I am but he is much taller. 


A majority of the class will choose the second form, thus 
showing that they appreciate the contrast expressed by but, 
even though they can give no reason for their choice. 

A large number of run-on sentences collected from the com- 
positions of children revealed the fact that almost invariably 
the second thought began with a pronoun. They were sen- 
tences like the following: 


We hauled him in he looked like a soaked puppy. bn 
May did not go to school she broke her arm. 
We started to walk home it was a long way. 


208 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


The question arises whether in certain cases the parts ought 
to be joined at all. Let the children discuss sentences of the 
sort, preferably those taken from their own papers. The 
thoughts are in all cases closely related, but the children will 
themselves discover that often they should form separate 
sentences. They almost invariably unite the parts of the 
second illustration with the connective because, in this way 

/ revealing their appreciation of the relation between the 
"clauses. 

Another type of error that appears perhaps a little later is 
the clause sentence. In this case, also, it is frequently the 
careful children who go astray, probably because they recog- 
nize the presence of a subject and a predicate, and therefore 
consider the words a sentence. 


Before the long game ended 


¥ 

Here are a subject and a predicate, and yet the words do 
not form a sentence. The pupils must be taught that while 
every sentence must have at least one subject and one predi- 
cate, one more thing is essential — it must completely express 
one or more thoughts. After the words quoted, one feels like 
asking, ‘‘ What happened before the game ended?” The 
child completes the sentence by saying, 


Before the long game ended I had to go home. 
Or, 
I had to go home before the end of the game. 


He discovers that he has now completely expressed his 
‘thought. 

It is well for the teacher to note that the correction of the 
latter type of sentence error resulted first in the production of 
a compound sentence, and then in the production of a simple 
sentence. Of course, this classification will not be taught to 
the pupil at this time, but if the teacher keeps it in mind, she 


_ COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 209 


will have the best sort of basis for teaching these sentence 
forms later. 

Perhaps it goes without the saying that not much should 
be said about a sentence sense. Usually the child does not 
comprehend the significance of the term, but persistent effort 
to cultivate the desired skill brings its sure reward. In the 
course of time the pupil gains a mastery of fairly simple 
sentence forms and knows almost instinctively when he has 
framed a good, forceful sentence. If the “ choppy ” style 
persists in any cases, compositions illustrating it may be 
written on the blackboard and the children trained to com- 
bine closely related thoughts in order to get greater force 
through greater variety in sentence length. They will also 
appreciate the added force obtained by the occasional inver- 
sion of subject and predicate. No child will fail to realize 
how much more vigorous is the second of the following de- 
scriptions of a race than the first. Let him find out to what 
the added force is due. 


Away ran Lollo and away ran the dog. 
Lollo ran away and the dog ran away. 


WORD STUDY 


The parts of speech. In order to make more intelligent the 
struggle against common errors of speech, and at the same 
time to make more conscious and intelligent the effort for 
vocabulary growth, the parts of speech may be taught in the 
sixth grade. 


One helpful device is to talk with the children about a | 
house as a shelter for a family. Many workers are required ‘ 


to build it, and each worker has his individual task to per- 
form. Carpenters, plumbers, masons, and other skilled 
workmen unite their efforts and produce a good house. A 
sentence is a shelter for a thought, and it requires two or 


Shen 
Li dp. 


210 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


more classes of words to make it complete, each class of 
words having its own work to do. Then set about finding 
out what this work is. 

It helps to establish at the outset the necessity for at least 
two kinds of workers in every sentence. Begin with a sen- 
tence like the following, and have the children give the 
subject and the predicate : 


Many beautiful trees grow in the park. 


See how many of the words in the subject can be dropped 
without destroying the subject. Proceed as follows: Drop 
many. Is what remains a sentence? Prove your answer. 
Drop beautiful, and test in the same way. If trees were 
dropped, would the sentence have a subject? Then trees 
must remain. Now think of the predicate words. If grow 
were dropped, would anything be stated about trees? Then 
grow alsomust remain. Drop in the park. Does a sentence 
remain? What is the subject of the sentence? the predi- 
cate? It is evident that at least two words are necessary, one 
in the subject and one in the predicate. 

Whenever we think, we must think about something, and 
if we are to talk or write about that something, we must give 
it a name. This name is a noun. The word that cannot 
be spared in the predicate because it is the word that states 
something about the noun, is a verb. In the sentence con- 
sidered, trees is a noun and grow is a verb. 

It is a good plan to develop the parts of speech one at a 
time, emphasizing in the case of each how the knowledge 
gained may immediately be applied to securing better oral or 
written work. In the case of nouns, written problems alone 
are concerned. These problems make it desirable to teach 
proper and common nouns, for securing correct capitaliza- 
tion; the singular and plural forms principally for the spelling 
difficulties of irregular plurals; and the possessive forms. 


_ COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 211 


Much drill is necessary to insure the use of the correct forms 
when they are needed. 

It is not the purpose here to discuss in detail methods of 
developing all parts of speech, but rather to suggest a method 
of attack that will be helpful in all grammar teaching. Be- 
cause grammar, however, is a subject that pupils may well 
study independently if the textbook clearly develops the 
topics, one textbook lesson is introduced here to show how it 
might be handled. After that, the aims for teaching each 
‘part of speech will be listed for convenient reference. 

Here is a book lesson on the pronoun. 


WORDS THAT ACT AS SUBSTITUTES FOR NOUNS: PRONOUNS 


When for any reason your teacher is absent from 
school, another teacher takes her place. Have you ever 
heard this teacher called a substitute? A substitute is a 
person who takes the place of another person. 

Today you will learn about words that act as substi- 
tutes for other words. Read the following paragraph 
and you will easily discover why it is a good plan some- 
times to use substitutes for certain words: 


Bob ran pell-mell down the street. Bob dropped Bob’s 
books and the wind took off Bob’s hat. Bob met Ned, and Bob 
and Ned chased the hat. Bob and Ned sprinted for a block, 
and finally Bob and Ned caught the whirling headgear. 


What is the trouble with the paragraph? Read it in 
an improved form. What words did you use to avoid 
repeating Bob, Ned, and Bob and Ned? Words that are 
substitutes for nouns are called pronouns, because it is 
their special business to take the place of nouns. Pro- 
moun means for a noun. 

Pronouns are troublesome words because they have so 
many different forms. Fill the blanks in the following 
paragraph with pronouns you may use instead of your 


At 
: 


: 


Ba 4 ON 
“212 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


name in speaking of yourself, or of yourself and some 
other person. The first pronoun will be J. Make a list 
of the pronouns you use in the paragraph. 





Every evening go to the train to meet —— father. 
Father often brings something from the city. walk 
home together. Mother sometimes comes to meet 











How many different pronouns are on your list? Fol- 
low the same plan with the following paragraphs : 





Prince was a fox terrier. looked gentle, but there was 
mischief in eye. Other dogs sometimes attacked , but 
soon surrendered. ears were sure to be bitten, and 
nothing could induce to renew the combat. 


One day Nellie’s mother said to , Will 
home books tonight?”’ Nellie answered that 
surely bring Then 
started for school. 























please bring 
would 
kissed each other, and Nellie 




















The rose was beautiful. spread perfume through 


the house. 


How many different pronouns have you on your entire 
list? ‘There are a few others, but you will study them 
later. 


The significant feature of this lesson is that the subject is 
developed in such a way as to throw upon the pupils a maxi- 
mum of responsibility. And yet it is so simply developed, 
that a majority of the pupils in any well-taught class can 
independently do what is required, and do it with full com- 
prehension. The exceptions must have individual attention, 
but often this help can be given by members of the class. 

Note that the lesson quoted has an introduction of two para- 
graphs that serves to explain the meaning of a new word used 
and to motivate the lesson. This is followed by an exercise 
that requires the pupil to face the problem and to think out 
the solution, several questions directing his thoughts. 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 213 


Then follows the name of the new class of words discovered, 
and an exercise that throws upon the pupil the responsibility 
of listing the common pronouns. At the last he gives all 
the words he has found that act as substitutes for nouns to 
prevent unnecessary repetition. Drill to fix the pronouns 
and their function in mind should follow, this drill being 
immediately succeeded by a study of common errors in the 
use of pronouns. From the first grade, the pupils have had 
drill on the correct forms, but now the forms are studied as a 
group. It becomes the duty of the pupils to discover all the 
pronoun errors heard in their own class and to attack these. 

One of the simplest ways in which to help children at this 
stage to overcome personal pronoun errors is to show them 
that when one pronoun alone is used in a certain relation, 
errors are seldom made. If it is right to say, ““ Mother sent 
me to the store,”’ and ‘‘ Mother sent May to the store,” it is 
right to say, ‘‘ Mother sent May and me tothe store.” If it 
is right to say, ‘‘ I went to the store,”’ and “‘ May went to the 
store,” it is right to say, ‘“‘ May and I went to the store.” 
While the correct use of the pronouns is secured by repeating 
sentences containing them, at this stage children should 

begin to help themselves when they are in doubt. The cor- 
rect use of she and her, he and him, they and them, may be dis- 
covered as in the case of J and me. 


GRAMMAR FACTS THAT ARE A MEANS OF SELF-HELP 


At this stage teach only those facts about each part of 
speech that will help solve some problem, either oral or 
written. But the principles that are taught should be devel- 
oped inductively, either by the textbook or by the teacher, 
the children discovering the facts for themselves. 

Here is an outline of grammar facts and their functions 
that may well be taught in the sixth grade: 


214 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


1. Nouns. Teach nouns as the names of the things we talk or 
write about; proper and common nouns in order to secure correct 
capitalization; singular and plural forms in order to clinch the spell- 
ing of irregular plurals; and the possessive forms of singular and 
plural nouns for the correct use of the apostrophe in possessives. 

2. Pronouns. (Only personal pronouns are studied at this 
stage.) Teach pronouns as substitutes that prevent the too fre- 
quent repetition of nouns. Have children themselves discover the 
different forms and list them. Review the common errors of speech 
to show how many relate to pronouns, and then point out a con- 
venient method of self-help when in doubt. ‘Teach the correct use 
of them and those by showing that them is a pronoun and therefore 
takes the place of a noun; those is not a pronoun and must always 
be used with anoun. ‘Teach the significance and the proper use of 
you're, they're, its, and it’s. 

3. Verbs. Teach the verb as the necessary word in the predicate, 
the word without which no statement can be made. Review the 
common errors of speech, and show how very large a proportion 
are verb errors, and how significant this is since every sentence 
must have a verb. Have the children make lists of the common 
verb errors, cross out all that are no longer heard in the class con- 
cerned, and make sentences containing the correct forms of the 
others, using the sentences in the daily drills. 

Show that the verb is the life-giving word of a sentence, and that 
the selection of expressive verbs greatly improves the sentence. 
Show that an expressive verb is one that tells a great deal, often 
showing not only what the person does, but how he feels. For 
instance, the use of the verb dashed instead of ran when speaking 
of a man who was very much excited; the use of gasped instead 
of said to describe how the man spoke. Give much practice in se- 
lecting expressive verbs, and have the children copy into the note- 
books those that they think will be useful to them. 

4. Adjectives. 'Teach adjectives as picture-making or pointing- 
out words. Have much practice in selecting the adjectives from 
selections studied, and showing how their use helps make a vivid 
picture. 

Emphasize the selection of suitable adjectives, and the avoidance 
of overworked adjectives like awful, nice, and great. Teach also 
the exact use of adjectives in describing, not only in the composition 
class, but in the geography, history, and other classes. Give practice 
in selecting suitable adjectives to describe climate, a good citizen, 


Woe Hy, 
we i 
dw res 
a 


Tiree 


COMPOSITION IN FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES 215 


weather, and the like. Have many of the most useful adjectives 
put into the notebooks for study and future use. 

Teach the proper adjective, in order to have it capitalized when 
written, Emphasize the adjective as the servant of nouns and pro- 
nouns. 

5. Adverbs. Teach the adverb as a word that serves verbs, adjec- 
tives, or other adverbs, just as the adjective serves nouns or pro- 
nouns. Distinguish between the adjective and the adverb, and 
show how the pupil may help himself in deciding whether in a given 
case the adjective quick, for instance, or the adverb quickly should be 
used. Guard against overworked adverbs like awfully, and give 
careful attention to selecting suitable ones when they are needed. 
Teach the difference between the adjective good and the adverb well. 

6. Prepositions. 'Teach the preposition as a word that introduces 
a phrase which does the work of a single word, most frequently of an 
adverb. Give special attention to the correct use of at and to, in 
and into, between and among, and distinguish between the preposition 
through and the verb threw. 

7. Conjunctions. For the present teach the conjunction merely 
as a word that joins two words that are used in the same way in a 
sentence or as a word that joins the parts of sentences. The princi- 
pal point to emphasize at this stage is the avoidance of long sen- 
tences which include too many thoughts for clearness. 

8. Interjections. The interjection is of little importance, but it 
should be taught simply to round out the list of parts of speech. 
Guard against slang interjections, such as ‘““Gee!’’ Review the use 
of the exclamation point with interjections. 


When all the parts of speech have been taught in the simple 
way indicated, and the study of each has been closely linked 
with either correct usage or vocabulary growth, the pupils 
will have acquired a new means of self-help that should be 
applied whenever it is needed. Have them understand that 
these eight so-called “ parts of speech” do all the world’s 
work of expressing thoughts by means of words. 


For THoucut AnD Discussion 


1. Review the discussion of dramatization in Chapter Six. What 
opportunities for dramatization does your grade afford in connec- 


216 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


tion with literature? geography? history? What constructive 
activities can your pupils be trained to plan in preparation for dram- 
atizing an incident from local history? What is the language value 
of this preparatory work? 

2. Read the fifth- and sixth-grade objectives in Chapter Twelve. 
To what extent do you agree that their attainment is desirable and 
possible? Having your own pupils in mind, what changes, if any, 
would you make? 

8. Is it a good plan to have practically all school experience fol- 
lowed by expression? An anecdote may help you to decide. 


An enthusiastic geography teacher in the vicinity of New York planned a 
series of afternoon excursions to interesting places in the neighborhood. 
Although attendance was purely voluntary, every pupil who could possibly 
do so began by taking the jaunts. But on the third trip, a boy who had 
been very enthusiastic failed to appear. On the following day the teacher 
said to him, “‘ I missed you yesterday, Ned. I hope you have not lost inter- 
est in our trips.” 

Ned thought for a moment, and then decided to be frank. “ I'll tell you 
why I didn’t come, Miss Breed,” he said. “‘ I enjoy the trips and I get a lot 
out of them, but when you tell us the next day to write about what we saw, 
~-it just spoils the fun.” 


The teacher answered in such a way that Ned never again 
missed a trip. What do you think she said? What would you 
say under similar circumstances ? 

4. What added English power may a pupil gain from a rich experi- 
ence even though he is not required either to talk or to write about it ? 


For READING AND StTuDY 


Consult the lists on pages 155, 156, and 179, and select from such 
of the books as are available the help that you desire. The following 
books will also be helpful : 


Haru-Quest. Swpervised Study in Elementary Schools. The Mac- 
millan Company. 

Rareer. How to Teach the Elementary Subjects. Charles Scrib- 
ner’s Sons. (Read Chapters IV and V.) 


Add also to your list of periodicals The English Journal. It is 
published by the University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

While The English Journal is principally concerned with the 
English of the high school, it often reports studies and makes sug- 
gestions that will prove invaluable to all higher-grade teachers. 


CHAPTER NINE 
CoMPOSITION IN THE HiacHER GRADES 


INTRODUCTION 


THE methods suggested in this chapter may be used in the 
seventh and eighth grades under the older form of organiza- 
tion, or they may be used in all grades of the junior high 
school. They presuppose the attainment of the objectives 
for the sixth grade listed on page 283. A teacher who wishes 
to make a thorough study of the chapter should follow, with 
such modifications as are necessary, the suggestions given 
on page 180. 


PROJECT — MAKING AN INVENTORY OF ENGLISH STOCK 


Classes of English projects. The term project as here used 
indicates any activity that is carried on codperatively by a 
class, largely through its own initiative, for some worthy pur- 
pose. Language activities are involved in two classes of 
projects. The first finds its incentive and its material in 
other subjects than English, but for expression is dependent 
upon oral and written language. The other lies wholly 
within the language field. It is this second type of project 
that is here considered. 

The initial project — preparing for the inventory. Intelli- 
gent self-measurement is necessary to growth by self-help 
means. When a pupil reaches the seventh grade, he will 
have had enough practice in criticism to enable him to esti- 
mate with considerable accuracy the strong and the weak 
points in the work of individuals and of the class as a whole. 
This critical power may be utilized in the project of making 
an inventory. 

| One method of approach is to discuss with the class the 
business man’s custom at the beginning of the year of making 
217 


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_“ 218 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


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an inventory of the stock he has on hand. This inventory 
enables him both to clear his shelves of merchandise for which 
there is no demand, and to add to the classes of goods re- 
quired in the community. In the same way it is business- 
like in a school to discover what useful habits and skills are to 
be further cultivated, and also what English habits that 
society frowns upon must be eliminated. 

The preparation of class and individual inventories of 
English stock makes a good project for the first weeks of 
school, the weeks which in any case would be devoted to 
strengthening foundations before taking up advanced work. 
During this period no new principles will be taught, but every 
effort will be made to infuse interest and enthusiasm into the 
review work. Fortunately language review does not necessi- 
tate the duplication of old material. The principles must 
be repeated, but the story-telling, the games, and indeed all 
the language activities may utilize fresh material. The 
stock-taking may well concern oral and written composition, 
all technicalities connected with written composition, and 
ar usage. 


gh bh. ORAL COMPOSITION 
“Establishing ideals. In order to review the characteristics 
ee ‘a good oral composition, the following paragraph, or a 


An *similar one, may be written on the blackboard: 


A good oral composition results from clear thinking about a 
subject worth talking about. It arouses interest by its first sen- 
tence, it has a point and sticks to it, it tells facts in their right order, 
it uses exact and forceful language, and it stops when the story is 


told. 


Such a statement refreshes the pupil’s mind and at the 
same time helps him to judge the compositions told in class. 
In the course of the month there should be enough oral 
composition lessons to enable each pupil to speak at least 


ee ¥ « 
NY } ant 50” © 
f ni ; 





Aw 
eS al 
/-” COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 219 


twice. Vacation experiences, anecdotes from books read, 
discoveries made through observation, the results of original 
experiments, and community interests, all offer themselves 
for this work. 

When a pupil has finished a composition, his classmates 
will criticize it, keeping in mind the blackboard outline. 
They will suggest to him one or two definite particulars in 
which his next composition should show improvement. Just 
before beginning his second composition, each pupil will 
remind the class in what respect he was cautioned to improve. 
The critics will give special attention to this matter when 
criticizing the composition. 

The most common faults discovered during the oral com- 
position lessons will be the ones that the class as a whole will 
try to overcome. Each pupil will also be held responsible 
for strengthening any weak points in his own work that were 
not included in the class list. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 


Setting up temporary standards. The following para- 
graph, or a similar one, may be written on the blackboard : 

A good written composition has all the features of a good oral 
composition. In addition it is well placed as to margins and in- 


dention, it is written neatly and plainly, capitals and punctua- 
tion marks are correctly used, and all words are spelled correctly. 


With these ideals in mind, the pupils should help prepare a 
temporary standard of measurement. The seventh-grade 
teacher should have on hand a considerable number of com- 
positions written during the second half of the preceding school 
year by sixth-grade pupils, and also a stock of compositions 
written during the preceding year by seventh-grade pupils. 

These compositions should be carefully read by the pupils 
and classified into groups, four or five groups being better 
than a larger number. 


220 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


One good method of work is to divide the class into com- 
mittees of six or eight pupils. The compositions will be 
numbered, and each committee will arrange them according 
to their merits into classes. They will then keep a record by 
numbers of the compositions in each class. The remaining 
committees will perform the same service, and when all have 
finished the ratings will be compared. At this point it will 
probably be necessary for the teacher to give some help in 
settling disagreements. By judicious questioning, and by 
calling attention to features of the compositions that may 
have been overlooked, she will be able to secure such adjust- 
ments as are necessary. One typical composition from each 
class will then be selected, and these compositions, labeled 
serially by letter or number, beginning with the best, will 
afford a very satisfactory home-made measuring instrument 
for the beginning of the year. Should any pupils for con- 
venience desire a measuring scale of their own, additional sets 
can easily be prepared from the classified compositions. 
Later scales such as those described in Chapter Eleven may 
be used for measuring composition ability with more exact- 
ness. Train the pupils to use a graph as suggested in that 
chapter. 

Copying and dictation. For the sake of paving the way 
- for written composition, a few copying and dictation lessons 
\. may be given, the lessons being carefully prepared to cover all 
technical matters previously taught. Before having a para- 
graph copied, ask the pupils to recall all necessary steps and 
to tell exactly how the matter should be studied. Have the 
reasons given for all capitals and punctuation marks. Similar 
paragraphs may then be dictated, the work being carefully 
corrected first by the writer, and then by another pupil. 
This work will serve to remind the pupils of the many possi- 
ble pitfalls in expressing thoughts in writing, to review tech- 
nical facts, and to show what review is most needed. 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 221 


Read once more what was said on page 190 about humor in 
dictation matter. Under the most favorable circumstances 
many children consider writing from dictation a bore, and it 
would certainly be so considered by most adults. An occa- 
sional hearty laugh is an almost necessary school experience. 
Nothing else so quickly smooths out rough places. 

Writing compositions. The preliminary work having been 
done, each pupil may write a composition of a single 
paragraph of moderate length. Only first drafts should be 
considered while the inventory project is under way. Each 
composition should be read by a number of children, be com- 
pared with the standard compositions, and be assigned to one 
of the classes into which these compositions were grouped. 
The reasons for putting it in one class or another should be 
clearly stated, and these reasons will tell the pupil who wrote 
the composition in what way he must strive to improve when 
writing his next composition. Incidentally, he should try to 
get into a higher group than the one to which his first compo- 
sition was assigned. In all the written composition work, 
have it understood that it is not only permissible for the 
pupils to get all possible assistance from the textbook, dic- 
tionary, or other books, but that they are expected to use all 
available means of self-help. 

When several compositions have been written by each 
pupil, it will be possible for the class in codperation with the 
teacher to list the strong and the weak elements in the work 
of individuals and in the work of the class asa whole. These 
are the items that will be needed for the inventory that is 
to be made. 


CORRECT USAGE 


A practical way in which to discover the errors of usage 
made in the class is the method advocated in an earlier 
chapter (page 185). Teacher and pupils unite in an effort to 


222 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


list all errors of speech heard either in school or outside of 
school during a fixed period of time. One simple plan is 
to have on the teacher’s desk a box into which slips of paper 
_ containing the incorrect forms may be dropped. The initials 
* of the person who made the error should be written on each 
slip. As the time for making the inventory approaches, a 
committee should be selected by the class to open the box 


_~ and list all errors, with the number of times each was reported. 


These should then be arranged in the order of frequency 
of occurrence. Each pupil should also be given a list of 
the errors he made. 


MAKING THE INVENTORY 


The class will now have the facts needed for drafting the 
inventory. In other words, the stock-taking part of the 
project is completed. The pupils themselves will be able to 
decide how they may best arrange the items. The discus- 
sion for this purpose will afford good language practice, and 
it would be a poor seventh grade indeed that did not light 
upon a suitable form. 

Here is a simple form of an individual inventory: 


INVENTORY 
GOOD STOCK POOR STOCK 
Sticking to the point No sentence variety 
Accurate spelling Some run-on sentences 
No slang Don’t for doesn’t 
Careful work Poor penmanship 


Apostrophe often omitted in possessives 
Papers sometimes unsigned 


As soon as the notebooks are started, each child should 
copy his inventory into the book and then strive faithfully 
to strengthen the weak spots. As soon as a fault is corrected, 
it may be crossed out neatly. Items will be added to both 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 223 


sides of the inventory as becomes necessary. The aim natu- 
rally will be to have a growing “ good-stock”’ list and a 
diminishing list of “‘ poor-stock ’’ items. 

The mistakes found to be common to a considerable num- 
ber of pupils will form the basis of the class aims. These 
may be carefully formulated by the class and written on the 
bulletin board. The list should be short, new aims being 
added as others are attained and taken from the list. These 
items might be selected at the outset : 


Crass AIMS 


We will try to improve our sentence structure. 
We will try to get rid of all carelessness in written work. 
We will banish ain’t, could of gone, and hadn’t ought. 


The class as a whole and its individual members will now 
know precisely what they are to try to improve. It is of the 
utmost importance that they be encouraged to keep up the 
struggle until victory is achieved. 

At intervals of six weeks to two months, or perhaps oftener, 
the work of each pupil should be judged by himself and his 
classmates, and the inventory be modified accordingly. 


SETTING THE SELF-HELP MACHINERY IN OPERATION 


Two important self-help activities were discussed in the 
preceding section — constructive criticism and the formula- 
tion of inventories and class aims. To these should at once 
be added the use of the dictionary, the notebook, and the 
more independent use of all kinds of self-help afforded by 
the textbook. A review at this point will be helpful. 

Using the dictionary. Separate the class into groups and 
assign to each group one of the following topics: 

How to find a word in the dictionary 


How to learn the pronunciation of a word 
How to find the meaning of a word 


4 


. 


~~ 


224 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


At the appointed time, each group will be ready to report. 
Each pupil should be ready to stand before the class, diction- 
ary in hand, and explain clearly and fully his topic. The 
critics will be on the alert to note omissions of important steps 
and to ask questions if everything is not altogether clear. 

Using notebooks. The same plan may be followed with 
notebooks. The pupils will bring to class some of the note- 
books of the preceding year and explain how they were used. 
This may well be followed by a discussion of the degree of 
helpfulness afforded by the various sections of the notebooks. 
It may be that the pupils will desire to drop some and add 
others. Let them have free rein as long as they preserve the 
characteristics of a personal language book. 

It is difficult to imagine any valid arguments against these 
sections: spelling, correct pronunciation, vocabulary growth, 
correct usage, compositions and letters, inventory. How- 
ever, should the class as a wholefeel that they would get more 
benefit from the notebooks if they had a smaller number of 
sections, giving more time to a few, the class plan should be 
tried out. 

Mastering the textbook. The mastery of the textbook as a 
means of self-help should be achieved in these grades, and all 
possible uses should be noted. Have the pupils study care- 
fully the Contents, the Index, the means afforded for review- 
ing the principles learned in lower grades, and the ways in 
which the book helps in preparing a lesson independently. 
When the subject has been well thrashed out, assign topics 
like the following to groups: 


What parts the language book contains 

The use of the Contents 

The use of the Index 

The difference between the Contents and the Index 
How to find review material 

How to study a lesson that teaches a new principle 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 225 


With textbook in hand, each pupil will give his demonstra- 
tion. The class will criticize and ask questions if necessary. 

When these discussions are over, the class will have re- 
viewed intelligently matters of importance, and will have had 
valuable practice in speaking to the point and in using exact 
language. 


PROJECTS THAT CULTIVATE INITIATIVE 


The importance of initiative. If one were to characterize 
in a single phrase the most striking advance in power that may 
reasonably be expected in the highest grades, that phrase 
would probably be increased initiative. Taking the initiative 
is not only a valuable self-help habit, but it lies at the foun- 
dation of influential living. Coupled with high ideals, it 
becomes the hall-mark of the independent, self-reliant, com- 
munity-serving citizen. 

All that has preceded has been concerned with the cultiva- 
tion of initiative, but this section deals with some further 
ways in which it may be developed. Important projects are 
often concerned. 

Organizing the class. Class organization is desirable for 
precisely the reasons that make organized effort out of school 
effective. It provides a democratic way of handling economi- 
cally and codperatively those matters of common interest 
that should largely be directed by the persons who are imme- 
diately concerned. It cultivates initiative and fixes responsi- 
bility where it belongs. The teacher does not need the added 
responsibility ; the pupil does. 

The class organization should not be distinctly an English 
enterprise, for it will often be helpful in connection with a 
variety of school activities. In connection with English, it 
will function as a Good-English Club. 

It is rarely necessary to expend much effort in persuading 
children that a club is desirable. They are ordinarily more 


226 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


than ready to organize, for the gang spirit is still a prominent 
characteristic. 

A common method of organizing classes is to have the 
teacher or the textbook tell the pupils what to do and how to 
do it. This method results in the mere imitation of adult 
methods and is in no sense a self-help activity. 

When the children have become interested in the enterprise 
by getting a glimpse of the advantages of working together 
and having good times of their own planning, let them inves- 
tigate clubs in the community, even though nothing more 

f than a corn club or a church sewing society is available for 
the purpose. The important thing is for them to find out 
why people band themselves together, how a simple organiza- 
tion with the necessary officers serves to make more effective 
the power of each active member, and how through commit- 
tees many useful ends are accomplished — ends that would be 
unattainable through purely individual effort. Of course it 
will be an advantage to be able to investigate clubs whose 
meetings are conducted in a parliamentary way, but this is 
secondary. The procedure needed for the class organization 
will readily be learned from observation when this is possible, 
from asking questions outside of school, by reading, and, if 
necessary, by consulting the teacher. 

At a fixed time have the children report what club they 
investigated, what its purpose is, its necessary officers, and 
their special duties. They may then discuss the work that 
their organization might do — discuss current events, plan 
programs, have simple debates, plan and direct Good-English 
drives, plan for correspondence with some other school, plan 
simple projects in various subjects, and the like. This being 
done, they will be ready to organize. They should plan for 
only the offices they actually need for the work they are going 
to do. Some of the most effective school clubs have been 
those with little machinery. 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 227 


A very simple statement of the purposes of the club, the 
time of meeting, the officers and their work, and the regula- 
tions for calling the meetings will suffice for a constitution. 
The organization should be no more complex than the children 
themselves make it. The teacher should be ever ready with 
advice when needed, but she should not impose upon the 
pupils any procedure that is not necessary to the carrying 
out of their purposes as planned by themselves. Above all, 
the organization should be a genuine one. Genuine clubs 
do not put timid, retiring members into important executive 
positions in order to give them experience. The teacher who 
thinks that every pupil should sooner or later have an oppor- 
tunity to play an important réle, and insists on frequent 
rotation in office to make this possible, is making a farce of 
the project. 

From the outset the pupils should be encouraged to select 
their officers wholly on the basis of their fitness for the position 
under consideration. Let them nominate the girls and boys 
who have manifested qualities of leadership and who will see 
the venture through. There are schools in which the pupils 
discuss the qualifications of candidates for office as frankly as 
is done at political conventions, but with vastly more regard 
for facts and human feelings. When the balloting is over, the 
children take great pride in the success of the boys and girls 
whom they have elevated to leadership. 

After the officers are elected, each should give a two- or 
three-minute talk to the class, fully explaining what he con- 
ceives his duties to be. Then committees should be ap- 
pointed. One very successful school club had the following: x, 
current events, entertainments, programs, correct usage, 
correct pronunciation, and vocabulary. At the close of every 
meeting the members of the last three took a few moments to 
call attention to any errors of English heard, any incorrect 
pronunciations, and to effective words used by any speaker, 


228 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


as well as words for which better ones might be substituted. 
The members of these committees were on the watch through- 
out the meeting, and had their reports ready so that they 
could be given in very short order. The duties of the other 
committees are self-evident. 

A club organized as suggested — and the plan has worked 
with marked effect even with a sixth grade — gives abundant 
opportunity for all to share real responsibility even though 
all may not occupy important offices. It is a good plan to 
change the leading officers occasionally if the pupils them- 
selves advocate the change. But it should always be in 
order to renominate an officer who has made a real success 
of his work and to throw upon those nominating another 
candidate the burden of proof that their candidate can do 
better. 

An objection to class organization sometimes urged. 


Jit is by no means uncommon to hear teachers say that they 


rc 
Cisse 
* 


cannot encourage class organization because it takes so much 
time. This argument would be a good one if the process of 
organizing contributed nothing to the English power and to 
the general efficiency of the class. But in these days few will 
assert that there is any better language training possible than 
that afforded by the discussions, reports, explanations, and 
argument that are necessary. The school time devoted to 
the organization side of the project, therefore, bears rich 
fruit, and the investigation that precedes is in any case carried 
on out of school. And after the club is organized and in 
operation, there is real economy of time — an economy due 
both to added efficiency resulting from group effort and to the 
greater interest that always results from effort that is gen- 
uinely motivated. It is the exceptional child who does not 
do his best under club conditions. 

The class paper. If the class is organized in the seventh 
year, the paper might become a major project for the eighth 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 229 


and ninth years. The children should decide for themselves 
whether or not they wish to start a class paper after the 
teacher has told them how interesting other classes find the 
project. They should bring newspapers to school and study 
them with a view to finding out what departments they have 
and the function of each. If possible, they should visit a 
newspaper plant and get information and enthusiasm at first 
hand. Some classes invite a newspaper man to visit the 
school and talk to them about the advantages of newspaper 
work. 

Dangers that beset school papers. There are several rocks 
on which many school papers go to their doom. The first is 
the attempt to do too much — to have quite or nearly as 
many departments as does a large city daily. This demands 
an organization too complex for untrained pupils. The rule 
suggested in connection with the class organization applies 
here also: Have the paper no more complex than the children 
themselves wish to make it after careful consideration. 

The second rock is that of the indifference of those pupils 
who like neither to write nor to plan. Shipwreck at this 
point can be averted only by making contribution to the 
paper voluntary. The important thing is to have the proj- 
ect a success from the start, and this is almost certain to 
result if only those pupils who are genuinely interested in the 
paper manage its affairs. And as time goes on, many others 
gradually become interested. This has been demonstrated 
again and again. When the pupils who stay outside find that 
they are held responsible for their best work at all times, they 
soon lose their reluctance to have their compositions appear 
in the paper. Often their class spirit is strong enough to 
enlist their efforts. 

Another rock is the too frequent publication of the paper. 
If the department heads are to do actual editorial work, 
going over all material contributed, besides writing their own 


230 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


editorials and news items, they will need time. A good paper 
appearing once a month, or even in alternate months, is far 
more likely to be a success than oneissued weekly. From 
six to eight numbers a year are usually sufficient. 

If the school is fortunate enough to have a printing plant, 
it is to be congratulated. However, some of the best school 
papers are composed of individual papers fastened together. 
This type of paper naturally cannot circulate to any extent, 
but this is not a disadvantage in the elementary school. It 
can be passed around to principal, supervisors, and the class 
members. One very successful school paper had the follow- 
ing departments, each under its own head: editorials, foreign 
news, domestic news, school happenings, jokes, stories, and 
advertisements. The advertising pages were posted on the 
school bulletin board. The entire paper was written by 
hand. | 

Since the class-paper project affords abundant opportunity 
for the best kind of motivated written work, it is evident that 
all composition instruction may be given in connection with 
this and other projects. 

Other projects. Other projects that work well in these 
higher grades are concerned with subjects of general interest 
that do not occur in the ordinary school categories. Such 
subjects as safety first, thrift, community needs, and the like 
offer excellent opportunities for investigation, reporting, and 
discussion, with the final gathering up into a booklet of the 
material that is most significant. The projects that are car- 
ried on in the fields of history, geography, hygiene, and 
elementary science offer the same opportunities for genuine 
speaking and writing. See also Chapter Ten. 

The following methods in oral and written composition 
teaching will find their motivation in the many pressing 
needs for power to use clear, exact, forceful, and pleasing 


English. 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 231 


COMPOSITION METHODS 


The paragraph as a finished product. The composition 
methods discussed in this section concern the paragraph as 
the unit of organized related thoughts; the sentence as the 
unit of thought expression; and the word as a worker, each 
having its own function in sentence building. 

The methods for the lower grades have emphasized the 
arrangement of ideas in their regular order, but in these 
higher grades special attention should be given to the para- 
graph as a finished product having a beginning, a middle 
part consisting of interesting details arranged in their natural 
order, and an appropriate end. It is not necessary to teach 
the topic sentence, for, as a matter of fact, a majority of 
paragraphs do not have one, and the subject may well be left 
for the senior high school. But the pupils of these higher 
grades should study the paragraph as a unit whose material 
is carefully classified. Take, for instance, the following 
paragraph : 

Tue Roap oF THE Lovine HEART 


Settled for his health in the tropical island of Samoa, Robert 
Louis Stevenson promptly won the love of the natives. At one 
time, when one of their chiefs and his followers were imprisoned, 
Stevenson visited the men in their captivity and took them many 
luxuries. On their release from prison, they came to thank their 
friend for his kindness. Wishing to commemorate it by some work 
of lasting benefit to him, they decided to make a road through the 
bush to his house. The work involved enormous labor, but it was 
undertaken with enthusiasm. When the road was finished, it was 
opened with a great feast, and named “‘The Road of the Loving 
Heart.” 


The author of this paragraph had a purpose. He wished to 
give the reader an appreciation of the relations existing be- 
tween Stevenson and the natives. He therefore selected his 
facts carefully and arranged them so that the paragraph 


232 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


would have an introduction, a main part, and an end that 
would leave in the reader’s mind the point of the story. 

Let the pupils read this and other similar paragraphs, and 
find the parts. Then have them reproduce the paragraphs 
in their own words in the main, but with the employment of 
some of the author’s expressions that are particularly happy. 

From this time on, the pupils should add to their other 
composition aims this one of classifying their material in the 
best way. Put on the blackboard some of the compositions 
written in class that illustrate the new aim. Let the pupils 
always give attention to this matter when preparing either 
oral or written one-paragraph compositions. It will bea good 
plan to have them copy into their notebooks something like 
the following if the textbook does not suggest similar rules: 


Choose your subject, making sure that it will interest your class- 
mates. 

Limit the subject so that you can tell interesting details in a single 
paragraph. 

Classify your material. Decide how you will begin the story; 
select and arrange in their natural order the facts for the main part 
of your story; and plan for a strong ending. 


The habit of following these directions faithfully when writ- 
ing one-paragraph compositions will be of inestimable benefit. 
in all subjects. ‘They should become the basis of criticism of 
all written work, no matter what subject it concerns. The 
fact that the pupils are learning to talk and to write in order 
,to improve their English aé all times should never be lost from 
* sight. 

The study of the paragraph as one part of a larger whole 
should also be continued. Review what is said about this 
in the preceding chapter. And while the writing of one well- 
organized paragraph that has its thoughts expressed in good 
sentences with some regard to variety, and that is free from 
common errors of grammatical usage or of capitalization and 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 233 


punctuation, should remain a minimum aim, no pupil who can 
do more should be held back. Many seventh- and eighth- 
grade children become thoroughly capable of planning and 
writing compositions requiring several paragraphs. To 
forbid their doing so would be unjustifiable. No pupil 
should be held back by the limitations of his classmates. 
Read once more what is said on this subject on page 199. 

How to use topics. Analyzing prose matter and listing the 
topics the author obviously had in mind, helps the pupils to © 
learn how to organize their own thoughts and express them in 
two or more paragraphs. Some teachers require pupils to 
write their topics at the head of the composition. This 
seems artificial, since the topics are for the help of the writer 
and not for the guidance of the reader. If the composition is 
so written that teacher and classmates cannot get the main 
topics from the composition itself, it is a poor composition, 
no matter how well selected the topics at the head of the 
paper may be. 

It is good practice for pupils to exchange compositions and 
for each to make an outline of the one he receives. If it is 
not possible to do this because of poor arrangement, the com- 
position should go back to the writer. If an outline is made, 
it is interesting for all concerned to compare it with the one 
previously made by the writer, and see to what extent the 
two agree. 

If a teacher wishes to see the outline on which a composition 
is based, she can ask that the outline be handed in with the 
composition, but as a separate item. It may be written ona 
slip of paper and attached to the composition. 


SENTENCE STUDY 


The purpose of sentence study. In these grades the 
sentence study should have as its aim the gaining of greater 
clearness, force, and smoothness. All the earlier types of 


234 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


sentence study should be continued as long as they are needed. 
The work should be based wholly on the types of errors in 
sentence form that are noted in either the oral or written work 
of the pupils. 

Simple, complex, and compound sentences should be 
taught only for the help they afford in accomplishing the 
purpose outlined in the preceding paragraph. It has been 
argued that this grammatical knowledge is not needed, as an 
equal degree of skill in handling sentences is often acquired 
without any knowledge of the grammar of the sentence. 
This is true, but it is no argument against making the acquisi- 
tion of the skill a conscious self-help process that all the less 
gifted, as well as the more gifted, may use effectively. Some 
boys plunge fearlessly into deep water and swim as naturally 
as does a fish, but the majority need swimming instruction. 
And even though a teacher might gain the desired ends 
without teaching the grammar of sentences, she would do so 
at great inconvenience, because the use of grammatical terms 
often saves lengthy explanations. But above all, the sen- 
tence-grammar that is motivated by a real need and is im- 
mediately applied to the relief of that need affords the pupil 
one of his most valuable self-helps. 

Compound subjects and predicates. The simple sentence 
offers nothing new to be learned, the pupils having used it 
freely and having already learned that it is composed of two 
necessary parts, the subject and the predicate. The name 
only is new, and this name is so descriptive of the sentence 
that it requires no effort to master it. The simple sentence 
is a sentence that has but one subject and one predicate, and 
completely expresses a thought. The compound subject and 
predicate may be taught solely because children often use the 
wrong verb form in the predicate after a compound subject. 
While drill on simple sentences containing compound sub- 
jects and predicates may well be secured by means of 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 235 


sentences given in the textbook, this drill should be 
supplemented by sentence building in order to enforce 
the practical value of the facts learned. Directions like 
the following may be used: 


Express in a simple sentence with a compound subject a thought 
about two or more games that you like to play. 

In a simple sentence with a compound predicate, tell two things 
that you did before coming to school this morning. 

Tell two things that you learned yesterday in your geography 
lesson, using a simple sentence with a compound predicate. 


A problem in sentence study. It is important that the 
study of complex and compound sentences have as a starting 
point a real composition problem. Take two contrasted 
compositions like the following, for instance : 


The rehearsal for the Christmas play was over. I sat down on 
the floor to look at a book. I had on my fancy costume. The sash 
was long and thin. It flew over the gas heater. I did not know 
this and the sash was soon ablaze. In my excitement I tried to get 
up. That was the worst thing todo. Just then Mother came in. 
She extinguished the flames with her hands. The ashes of my 
beautiful sash fell to the floor. 


The rehearsal for the Christmas play was over, and I sat down on 
the floor to look ata book. Ihad on my fancy costume. The sash, 
which was long and thin, flew over the gas heater. I did not know 
this, and the sash was soon ablaze. In my excitement I tried to get 
up, but this was the worst thing for me to do. Just then Mother 
came in and extinguished the flames with her hands. The ashes 
of my beautiful sash fell to the floor. 


Have both compositions read, and then ask which is the 
more pleasing, and why. ‘The sentence monotony of the first 
immediately impresses most children, and the way is then 
open to show how thoughts were united in the second. Tell 
the pupils that thoughts were combined in two different 
ways, and that it will be helpful to study the two kinds of 
sentences that were produced. 


Y= EK 


236 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


The compound sentence. Since the compound sentence 
presents little difficulty, it should be studied first. One 
way would be to take the compound sentences of the second 
story on page 235 as a starting point. Another is to teach 
the compound sentence first, and then have the pupils dis- 
cover which of the sentences in the story are compound and 
what thoughts are united to produce them. The second 
method is followed here, because it leaves the composition 
problem to be intelligently solved by the pupils after they 
have learned the necessary facts. 

The simplest way is to begin with two short simple sen- 
tences that are closely related : 


The rain came down in torrents. 
I was thoroughly soaked. 


Ask the children to prove that these are simple sentences. 
Show that each sentence expresses an independent thought, 
and then ask if there is any relation between the thoughts. 
The relation is obvious, and justifies joining the sentences. 


The rain came down in torrents and I was thoroughly soaked. 


The thoughts were united because they are related to each 
other, and the longer sentence is more pleasing than the two 
shorter ones. Ask what name was given to a subject or a 
predicate formed by joining words. The word compound 
being given, it is easy for the pupils to see that compound is a 
good name for a sentence that unites two thoughts but leaves 
each as independent as before. 

This should be followed by the study of drill sentences, 
such as are given in any textbook; then the class will be 
ready to go back to the composition and find the compound 
sentences that were formed by joining two simple sentences. 
Sometimes it is a good plan in this early work to tell how 
many there are, there being in this case three. Ask the 
pupils to find one simple sentence with a compound predicate. 


LY 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 237 


It would be almost a miracle if some pupil did not select as 
compound the one complex sentence in the composition. 
Should this occur, it need cause no anxiety. Simply throw 
upon the class the responsibility of determining whether the 
thoughts in that sentence were joined in such a way that 
each simple sentence remained independent. They will 
readily see that one clause, The sash flew over the gas heater, 
remains independent as before, but that the other simple 
sentence was changed in such a way that it no longer com- 
pletely expresses a thought. It is now like the groups of 
words that are sometimes incorrectly written as sentences. 
It is only when joined to the other simple sentence that in 
this form it helps to express a thought. It is enough at first 
simply to recognize this sentence as different, leaving it to be 
studied after much drill on compound sentences. 

The correct use of compound sentences. The compound 
sentence should be recognized first of all as a means of secur- 
ing variety in sentence form by combining thoughts in such 
a way that they do not lose their independence. Then take 
the long run-on sentence, the special pet form of many chil- 
dren, and have the class prove that it is a compound sentence, 
but that it includes too many clauses. Suggest that asa rule 
it is a good plan to express not more than two independent 
thoughts in a compound sentence. 

Another type of error in the use of compound sentences is 
the joining of thoughts that are not closely related. Should 
the fact that the following is not a good compound sentence 
be definitely taught, or should the common sense of the 
class be relied upon to criticize it wisely ? 


The sun was shining and I had a toothache. 
In order that no confusion may result, there should be much 


drill on compound sentences before taking up complex. Drill 
on lists of sentences all of which are compound, such as is 


238 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


usually provided for in textbooks, is useful to fix in mind 
the facts. If the drill ends there, it has not achieved its 
aim. When the compound sentence is thoroughly under- 
stood, have the pupils find the simple and compound sen- 
tences in paragraphs, using some of their own compositions 
for the purpose. In every case, request proof. The simple 
and the compound sentence will not be really understood 
until they can be found readily when mingled with complex 
sentences, as they usually are. The complex sentence will 
be set aside as offering a problem yet to be solved. Assign- 
ments like the following are helpful: 


Copy from a composition in your notebook five compound sen- 
tences. In class be ready to prove that each sentence is compound, 
and that its clauses are closely enough related to justify your joining 
them. 


Above all, keep before the pupils the fact that the use of 
the different sentence forms is one of the most effective 
means of securing a pleasing sentence variety. 

The complex sentence. There are several intelligent 
paths of approach to the complex-sentence idea. One 
way is to begin by comparing a complex sentence with a 
simple sentence of the same meaning : 


I shall go soon. 
I shall go when the rain stops. 


Have the children tell what kind of sentence the first is, 
and give its subject and predicate. Then get the statement 
that the word soon is an adverb because it shows when I shall 
go. Ask then what words in the second sentence give the 
same information. They find that the words when the rain 
stops do precisely the same work that is done by the adverb 
soon in the first sentence; that is, they do the work of an 
adverb. The fact that the group of words has a subject and a 
predicate shows that it is a clause; but because it works for 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 239 


the other clause by modifying the verb go, it is not independ- 
ent, but dependent. The class will then be ready for the 
name complex, applied to many things that are not simple. 
Another method of approach is to start out with a clause 
sentence found in the work of the pupils. This will simply be 
a review of what has been taught from a different point of view 
in the sixth grade. Suppose this were the sentence found: 


Before the automobile overturned. 


The children find that there is a subject and a predicate, 
but that the thought is incomplete. One feels like asking, 
** What happened before the automobile overturned? ”” The 
sentence is then completed : 


A loud explosion was heard before the automobile overturned. 


Then have the children discover that the clauses were 
joined in such a way that the second is not independent, 
because it tells when the explosion was heard. It is an adver- 
bial clause and is dependent. The word subordinate may also 
be taught, because it is in itself a useful word to add to the 
vocabulary, and because when its meaning has been devel- 
oped, its appropriateness is obvious. 

In emphasizing the function of the subordinate clause, it is 
well to consider phrase modifiers also. The word phrase will be 
familiar already because of its use in connection with verbs and 
prepositions. Sentences like the following may be compared : 

My brother has a small pony. 
My brother has a pony of small size. 
My brother has a pony that is small. 

The adjective small in the first sentence, the phrase of 
small size in the second, and the clause that 1s small in the third 
all describe the pony. They are therefore all adjective modi- 
fiers, one being an adjective, one an adjective phrase, and the 
last an adjective clause. There seems to be no good reason 
for teaching the noun clause, because it occurs much less 


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240 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


frequently and is not a form that children would consciously 
adopt. If the children happen to stumble upon one and 
recognize it as being neither an adjective nor an adverbial 
clause, let them try to discover what work it does in the sen- 
tence in which it occurs, and name it accordingly. The 
chances are good that a child discerning enough to discover 
it will be shrewd enough to find out what its function is. 

As a result of this study of sentence forms, the children 
should understand the functional difference between simple, 
compound, and complex sentences, and should fully appre- 
ciate how the use of these forms contributes to sentence 
variety and to force. It should not, however, result in an 
effort to drop the simple sentence. The study of paragraphs 
like the following serves to reveal how the use of a series of 
short simple sentences gives emphasis, in this case to the 
loneliness of the place. It is taken from Kidnapped. 


It was half-past twelve of a very cold night. I was almost frozen. 
I took off my shoes and walked to and fro upon the sand, barefoot 
and beating my breast with infinite weariness. There was no sound 
of man or cattle. Notacock crowed. I heard only the surf beating 
in the distance. By the sea that hour in the morning, and in a place 
so desert-like and lonesome, I had a kind of fear. 


_ Well-written paragraphs of this sort are excellent for teach- 
ing the value of variety in sentence length. They are also 
useful for exploding the idea many children harbor, that the 
simple sentence is necessarily a short sentence. The children 
will be astonished to find that the extract is made up wholly 
of simple sentences of varying length, although they should 
not be expected to make this discovery until they know 
something about verbals. 

The knowledge of sentence form applied. The pupil 
should never lose sight of the fact that he has been studying 
sentence forms solely for the purpose of adding variety and 
force to his own oral and written expression. For the time 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 241 


being let him concentrate his attention on this matter, going 
over every composition or letter to find sentences that can 
be improved. In the course of time he should realize that 
he can use the complex sentence to make an important 
thought stand out prominently, by using a subordinate 
clause for the thought that in some way works for the im- 
portant one to be emphasized. He should also find out how 
the use of phrases instead of clauses sometimes gives smooth- 
ness to a sentence. 


Mr. Brown, who was formerly our state representative, has been 
nominated for Congress. 

Mr. Brown, our former state representative, has been nominated 
for Congress. 


Much practice in changing the forms of given sentences, 
preferably sentences taken from the pupil’s compositions, 
helps to cultivate the power to select from various expressions 
of the same thought the sentence that has the greatest clear- 
ness, force, and smoothness. 

Ways of securing force. Reversing the order of subject 
and predicate as a means of gaining force has already been 
discussed. Another means is the proper placing of modifiers, 
whether these modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses. 
A grammar published many years ago used the following 
advertisement as an illustration of wrong arrangement: 


Wanted, a strong riding horse for a young lady weighing eight 
hundred pounds. 


This is another of the occasions when a little fun adds 
enthusiasm to work. Almost all textbooks give sentences 
that are ludicrous because of wrong arrangement of the parts, 
and the children like to work with them. But here, again, 
sentences gleaned from the written work of the class are 
especially valuable, because they keep before the pupils the 
practical nature of what is being studied. 


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242 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Sentence building. Drill in constructing sentences to 
meet fixed requirements is very valuable, because it serves 
more than almost any other exercise to make clear the func- 
tions of the parts of a sentence and the way in which the parts 
work together. Here are some suggestive directions: 

1. Build a sentence from these suggestions: subject substantive, 
automobile; predicate verb, dashed; subject substantive modified by 
an article and another adjective; predicate verb modified by an 
adverbial clause showing where the automobile dashed. 

2. Start with the simple sentence, The sun was shining brightly. 
Make two complex sentences, the first modifying sun by an adjective 
clause, and the second modifying was shining by an adverbial clause. 


Finally make a sentence containing both of the modifiers you used 
in the other sentences. 

3. Complete the sentence below, first by modifying the verb left 
by the adverb early; next by modifying the verb by an adverbial 
phrase; and lastly by modifying the verb by an adverbial clause. 


T left the house — 


Are any of the sentences you made simple? complex? Which sen- 
tence do you like best, and why? 


Analysis of sentences. Analysis is the antithesis of the 
work discussed in the preceding section. Instead of building 
sentences by combining words, phrases, and clauses, it sepa- 
rates given sentences into these parts. Oral analysis only 
will be considered here. If a teacher wishes to use diagrams, 
she can easily find or devise a suitable form. 

One purpose of teaching analysis is to afford additional 
help in appreciating how strong sentences are built up by 
other persons, in order that the pupil may build better ones 
himself and may test his own expressions if he is in doubt 
as to whether or not they are sentences. For this purpose, 
sentences not much more involved than those naturally used 
by the pupils should be used. As a rule compound sentences 
of not more than two clauses, and complex sentences of one 
independent and one subordinate clause, are sufficiently 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 243 


difficult. The analysis consists simply in discovering how 
many distinct predicate verbs there are, this giving the clue to 
the number of clauses. If there is but one subject and predi- 
cate, the sentence is simple, and analysis consists simply in 
naming the predicate verb, the subject substantive, and all 
modifiers and connecting words. If the sentence has two 
distinct predicate verbs, it is either compound or complex. 
The sentence form is determined, and then each clause is 
analyzed as in the case of the simple sentence, the clause con- 
nectives being pointed out, and in case of the complex 
sentence the relation of the subordinate to the independent 
clause. 

No form is suggested, because the use of a stated form so 
frequently degenerates into parrot-like work. Clearness and 
exactness of statement being among the language aims, and 
having received much attention, the pupil should use the 
acquired skill in making his analysis. Uniformity is neither 
desirable nor essential, unless the class themselves discover 
that the form used by a certain pupil is simple and direct and 
they consequently adopt it for themselves. This is a self-help 
way to learn. 

The most valuable function of analysis is to aid the pupil 
to interpret sentences encountered in his reading that are 
puzzling either because of their great length or because of the 
unusual order of the parts, or for both these reasons. Take, 
for instance, these lines from Longfellow’s Evangeline: 


In that delightful land which is washed by Delaware’s waters, 
Guarding in sylvan shades the name of Penn the apostle, 
Stands on the banks of its beautiful stream the city he founded. 


Suppose that a pupil reads this sentence and is somewhat 
bewildered as to its meaning. He begins his analysis by read- 
ing once more the first line, and upon thoughtful considera- 
tion finds that it describes the where of some person or place 


Y 


244 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


yet to be discovered. The next line read in the same 
thoughtful way tells what this as yet unknown person or 
place does to the name of Penn, but likewise gives no clue to 
the main thought of the sentence. On beginning the third 
line, he finds the verb stands, and gets a clue. He asks him- 
self, “‘ What stands? ”’ and finds that itis a city. Taking up 
the thought at this point and going back to the beginning of 
the sentence, he discovers that the first line tells where the 
city stands and that the second tells in a poetic way what the 
city is doing there. 

As far as his purpose in analyzing the sentence is con- 
cerned, he need go no further. Analysis of this sort should 
be discontinued the moment its purpose is accomplished. 
As a rule, locating the main verb and its subject, with the 
principal modifiers, is sufficient. 


WORD STUDY 


The importance of word study. The paragraph is impor- 
tant, since it embraces within itself the carefully organized 
thoughts regarding the subject. The sentence, as the effec- 
tive expression of one or more of these thoughts, requires 
careful attention. The words that clothe the thoughts are 
vital, for upon their selection, no less than upon their arrange- 
ment within the sentences, depends the vividness and the 
beauty of the finished composition. 

Choosing words and using them effectively. Did you ever 
think that words afford a means of transportation? Just as 
the auto truck, the freight car, or the steamer carries mer- 
chandise from one person to another, so spoken or written 
words, combined into sentences, convey ideas from one mind 
to another. It is important that the merchandise reach its 
destination in perfect condition. It is equally important 
that ideas reach their destination without change of any 
sort. This makes it essential that a person sending thoughts 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 245 


select his words and frame his sentences as carefully as the 
merchant selects the containers for his goods. 

In the junior high school the building up of an adequate 
vocabulary is of the utmost importance. Use all the means 
of vocabulary growth discussed in preceding chapters, and 
take advantage of all the projects of these highest grades for 
training the pupils still further to increase their stock of 
words. Here are some additional suggestions : 


1. Train the pupils to notice the speech of educated people so 
that they will remember fine, forceful words that are used, and add 
them to their own vocabularies. | 

2. Train the pupils consciously to select words from the matter 
that they read in connection with any line of work. They should 
judge the force and the picturesqueness of words by the response of 
their own minds. Give much practice in reading descriptions like 
the following paragraph by Donald G. Mitchell : 


Now comes a blinding flash from the clouds, and a quick, sharp clang 
clatters through the heavens and bellows among the hills. Then come the 
big drops of rain, pattering on the lawn and, most musically of all, on the 
roof above me. 


When the selection has been read, ask the children to tell what 
they saw as they read, and what they heard. Have them explain 


why a blinding flash is a more expressive phrase than a bright flash. , _ 


Have them study the words that express the rolling of the thunder, 
and so on. The last step is so thoroughly to saturate themselves 
with the passage that the same happy words and combinations of 
words will occur to them during a thunder shower. 

3. Give much attention to synonyms. Have the pupils use their 
dictionaries to discover the finer shades of meaning in words. 

4. Have the pupils learn the best names for the things they wish 
to talk about, the adjectives that best describe their characteristics, 
and the verbs that most vividly characterize their actions or their 
condition. Much of the time allotted to preparation for oral or 
written composition should be devoted to selecting the words that 
will best convey the thoughts from the mind of the speaker or writer 
to the mind of the hearer or reader. 


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246 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


5. Literature is so large a subject that it has not been considered 
in this book, although its close relation to composition is obvious. 
One way of utilizing literature in vocabulary building has been 
pointed out in No. 2 of this group of suggestions. But this is but 
one of the possibilities. Along with the other purposes for which 
you teach literature, keep always in mind the vocabulary needs 
of your pupils. 


Using words correctly. In the lowest grades it has been 
recommended that the children simply repeat over and over 
sentences containing the correct form, so as to eradicate an 
incorrect form commonly used. Games afford the best 
means to secure this necessary repetition in those grades. 
Later, in the fifth and sixth grades, the same kind of drill 
was presupposed, but it was supplemented by teaching the 
functions of words in the sentence and classifying the types 
of error in accordance with the part of speech to which each 
belongs. It helps a child to wage war against verb errors to 
know that every sentence must have a verb, and that the 
commonest verbs are those that are most frequently misused. 
He appreciates that the verb gives the sentence its life and 
realizes the folly of destroying the force and the beauty of 
his sentence by employing an incorrect verb. The large 
number of pronoun forms that he finds; the knowledge that 
they are continually misused; the importance of selecting 
picturesque and exact adjectives and adverbs, and so on — 
all these matters become of greater importance to him when 
he faces in an intelligent way the problems involved. More- 
over, the terminology of grammar makes discussion and 
explanation much easier than it would otherwise be. 

In the seventh and eighth grades the study of word-gram- 
mar makes intelligent what has hitherto been done largely 
from imitation, and affords a self-help method of settling 
questions when in doubt. It is particularly helpful to the 
pupil whose bad habits of speech persist because of his home 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES Q47 


and street life, but who is ambitious and wishes to know the 
reasons of things in order that he may help himself to over- 
come his bad habits. It is also very helpful to the child who 
hears a foreign language spoken at home, and who never 
seems able to get enough practice in repeating correct forms 
to establish their use. The predicament of the boy who said, 
“I know that I ought sometimes to say ‘Tom and I’ and 
sometimes *‘ Tom and me,’ but how to tell which to use is too 
much for me,” is a case in point. The grammar of the per- 
sonal pronoun, thoroughly taught, and taught solely from the 
standpoint of function, would give such a boy precisely the 
help he so consciously needed. 

It is not the purpose here to give much space to the teaching 
of word-grammar, but simply to illustrate the simple, induc- 
tive way in which it may be taught when the child under- 
stands precisely why he is to study the subject and knows 
that he will be expected to improve his own language as the 
result of the knowledge he gains. Here isa lesson on personal 
pronouns worked out to show how the subject may be taught, 
and revealing also why it is sometimes necessary to teach 
some other facts before the immediate goal can be attained. 


SreLF-HELP IN Usinac PERSONAL PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 


So far this term you have been drilling on correct verb 
forms. Studies made in all parts of the country show 
that more mistakes are made in the use of verbs than in 
the use of any other part of speech. Pronouns rank next 
to verbs as trouble makers. 

Review thoroughly all that you have already learned 
about pronouns. 

For several years you have been trying to form the 
habit of using personal pronouns correctly by repeating 
over and over again sentences containing the correct 
forms. But as you go on in life you may sometimes be 


248 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


in doubt as to which of two forms you should use. 
This grammar lesson will give you a self-help method 
of determining which of two sentences like the follow- 
ing 1s correct : 


Mother told Ned and J to return promptly. VY 
Mother told Ned and me to return promptly. 


As pronouns do not work alone in sentences, it will be 
necessary to study verbs and pronouns together. Keep 
in mind what you are trying to learn. What is it? 

Imagine that a boy uses the following sentences. Let 
us call him John. 


I struck the ball. 
The ball struck me. 


What pronoun does John use in the first sentence in 
speaking of himself? What is the predicate verb of the 
first sentence? the subject substantive? What did 
John, or J, strike? Because ball received the action of 
the verb struck, — or, in other words, because ball was 
acted upon, — we call it the object of the verb struck. 

Stop right here and make sure that you understand 
fully that J is the subject of the verb struck because it per- 
forms the action, and ball is the object of the verb because it 
receives the action. 

Read the second sentence. What is the predicate 
verb? Why? What is the object of the verb? Why? 

Since John used the personal pronoun f in one case 
when speaking of himself, and the personal pronoun me 
in the other, you see at once why pronouns are trouble- 
some. Which of the pronouns I and me is the subject 
form? the objectform? Let ussee whether other personal 
pronouns change their forms in the same way. 

The first sentence of each of the following pairs of sen- 
tences contains a pronoun used as the subject of a verb. 
The second sentence contains the same pronoun used as 
the object of a verb. In which cases is there a change of 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 249 


form according to the way in which the pronoun is used ? 
Which pronouns do not change their forms? 


wv 


1. You write very well. 
Did the lightning frighten you? 
2. He has a black pony. 
One day the pony kicked him. 
8. We are going to New York. 
Uncle John will take ws in his automobile. 
4. It was a cunning baby. 
Mother held zt in her lap. 
5. They are hunting squirrels. 
Do the squirrels see them? 
6. She gave a book to Mary. 
Mary thanked her for it. 


Here are the subject forms: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. 
Here are the object forms: me, you, him, her, it, us, them. 
If you are in doubt about which one of these forms to 
use, stop and think whether you wish to use the pronoun 
as the subject of a verb or as the object. Then choose 
the right form. 


Note that the lesson first sets before the class a purpose. A v 
problem is to be solved, the problem being the selection of 
the personal pronoun to be used under special circumstances. 
The lesson is motivated at the outset. 

The fact that pronouns do not work alone in sentences 
makes it necessary first to become familiar with the subject 
and the object of a verb. The pupil finds that the particular 
pronoun used changes its form according as it officiates as 
subject or as predicate, and goes on to discover whether or 
not other pronouns undergo a similar change. When this 
has been determined, the lesson gives the subject forms and 
the object forms. The pupil thoroughly familiarizes himself 
with these, and finds that he has created a means of self-help 
that in the future he can apply to similar problems when in 


250 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


doubt. Of course, much drill should follow such a lesson, 
and it should frequently be reviewed. 

A similar method may be employed in teaching the other 
necessary facts of word-grammar. The rule to follow is 
this: Teach only the facts that are necessary to enable the 
pupil to understand why certain forms are correct and certain 
others incorrect, thus making the choice of the correct form 
a simple matter. 

Supervised study. The grammar lesson given above is so 
planned that the pupils can study it intelligently and arrive 
at the desired knowledge entirely independently. The super- 
vised-study plan works particularly well with such a lesson. 
The period begins with the necessary review. This is fol- 
lowed by a statement of the problem to be solved. With 
this clearly in mind, study begins, the teacher being ready to 
help individuals whenever help is requested. When a fixed 
period of time has been devoted to individual study, the class 
resumes codperative work. Now comes the time for testing 
results. This may be done by calling successively for the 
purpose of the lesson; the reason why a new fact about verbs 
needs to be learned and what the fact is; the discovery that 
some pronouns have one form when they are used as subjects, 
and another when they are used as objects; the scrutiny of 
other pronouns; and the final classifying of the pronoun 
forms in a way to make the knowledge serviceable, each point 
being fully discussed. Another method is to ask one or more 
pupils to explain the correct use of the pronouns as they 
might to a person who had not studied the subject. This 
involves having every step in mind and fully understanding it. 


OTHER METHODS OF SELF-HELP TEACHING 


The importance of self-teaching. It is not enough for 
pupils to learn to study from books while under the eye of the 
teacher. Sooner or later ambitious girls and boys must be- 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 251 


come self-teaching in order that they may help themselves 
when neither textbook nor teacher is at hand. Take, for 
instance, the matter of social and business letter forms. It 
is the custom in some places to teach in the elementary school 
the writing of formal social notes, telegrams, post-office 
money orders, and the like. Children will have little use 
for these forms for years to come, if ever. The school should 
prepare them for helping themselves when the time of need 
arrives. The group projects outlined in the lesson below 
illustrate how this may be done. 


Group PRoJEcTS 


Outside of school, most people write little else than let- 
ters, unless we except the occasional writing of telegrams 
and advertisements; making out money orders, bills, 
checks, and receipts; and at rare intervals, if at all, for- 
mal notes of invitation or of acceptance. The making 
out of bills and receipts you have, of course, studied in 
connection with your arithmetic lessons. How many of 
the other activities mentioned do you find that you need 
to practice now ? 

A very wise man once wrote the following words: 


Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves, or 
we know where we can get information upon it. 
SAMUEL JOHNSON 


There are some things that are best learned when one 
needs to put them into practice. The important thing is 
to know where to get the necessary information when it is 
needed. 

As a means of discovering what ability you have to 
teach yourself an important lesson when you need it, 
divide the class into five sections, each section taking one 
of these subjects: writing a telegram; making out a 
post-office money order; making out and signing a 


/ 


252 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


check ; writing a lost or found or for sale advertisement; / 
writing a formal invitation to a dinner party and a formal 
acceptance or declination of the invitation. Each pupil | 
will work independently in finding out how to perform | 
the group activity. Try to bring in the most helpful | 
report submitted. 

Some of the activities suggested require the use of 
blank forms that largely explain themselves. If your 
topic requires a blank form, get a copy, and find out by 
asking some person who can give you the necessary help 
any facts you cannot discover for yourself. Some 
require a very economical use of words. Which ones? 
In class be prepared to report on your topic, stating what 
occasions in life require the use of the item on which you 
are reporting; where you obtained the blank form, if 
any ; how you gained the information you needed. Sub- 
mit a perfect example to the class as a model. 

If any of you wish to preserve now some of the infor- 
mation gained as the result of this investigation, use your | 
notebooks. Your notebook, you remember, is to be your | 
individual English aid when you no longer have a text- | 
book to consult. Should you later need to use one of the 
forms, consult your notebook, or get the necessary infor- 
mation as it was obtained for these reports. 


WRITTEN COMPOSITION 


Self-help methods of learning. ‘The projects discussed in 
the previous sections of this chapter require written as well as 
oral expression. Little that is new remains to be taught 
regarding capitalization and punctuation, and that little 
should be learned by the pupils as independently as possible. 
The punctuation of the compound and the complex sentence, 
for instance, should be taught when these forms of sentences 
are to be consciously used by the pupils. The punctuation 
is then recognized simply as a means of making it easier 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 253 


for the reader to interpret the sentence. The rule for a new 
use of the capital should be formulated by the pupils after 
they have discovered the reason for the use. This is the 
self-help way of learning. The following lesson illustrates 
the method. 


PROJECT: MAKING RULES FOR CERTAIN USES OF 
CAPITAL LETTERS 


From time to time you have had your attention 
directed to certain uses of capital letters, have had drill 
in using the letters correctly, and have learned the rules 
concerned. But there is another way to learn. Thou- 
sands of men and women who attended school but a short 
time have learned by observing how capitals were used in 
the letters, papers, and books they read; they thought 
about these uses until they discovered good reasons for 
them; and then they made for themselves rules that they 
at once began to apply. This is the self-help method — 
the method that you must all follow when you no longer 
have books and teachers to direct your work. 


eer 


Maxine Rvuues ror THE USE oF CAPITALS 


Each of the following exercises should result in a clearly 
expressed rule for the use of capital letters. 

I. In your reading you come upon the following sen- 
tences : 


In all climates spring is beautiful. In the South it is intoxi- 
cating. 


If your eyes are sharp, you will discover a new use of 
the capital, even though you may not at first see the 
reason for it. But from time to time you find in papers 
and books sentences like the following : 


1. Corn is raised abundantly in the West. 
2. I once lived five miles west of Chicago. 


254 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


3. In the South cotton is king. 

4. To reach the Court House, walk two blocks east to Main 
Street, go north to the Armory, and then walk one block west. 

5. Captain Peary explored the trackless North. 


By this time, if you have used your eyes to good pur- 
pose, you have noticed facts enough to help you form an 
important rule. 

Read the rules you make, select one that is very clearly 
stated, and copy it into your notebooks. 

II. From time to time you notice in letters the follow- 
ing salutations and endings, not necessarily in the same 
letter. Make a rule for the use of capitals. 


Salutations Endings 
My dear Friend, Your sincere friend, 
Dear Mother, Your loving mother, 
Dear Cousin, Your affectionate cousin, 
My own dear Son, Your loving son, 
Dear old Pal, Your faithful pal, 


Read and compare the rules, and write the best one in 
your notebooks. 
III. Review all that you know about abbreviations. 
Study the first pair of the following sentences, and ex- 
plain why doctor begins with a small letter and Dr. with 
a capital. Explain similar uses of capitals and small 
letters in the remaining pairs of sentences: 
1. My grandfather was a doctor. 
He was a partner of Dr. Bullock’s. 

2. Should you like to be a president? 
My great-grandfather knew President Jackson. 

3. Every large city has a superintendent of schools. 
We sent a class letter to Superintendent Wheelock. 

4. Every state has two senators at Washington. 

The discussion was opened by Senator Reeves. 


Make a rule for the use of capitals in writing the names 
of titles applied to persons. Compare the rules made, 
and select the best one as before. 


“alll N 


o. ys 
- ee, CY Vi, a awry 


Ip piv " Sty yi yw 


ye” yr yr 4 ot 
COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 255 


Letter writing. While reports, compositions on various 
themes, and all the varied types of written work required by 
the newspaper project are valuable modes of expression, 
letter writing remains the most important form of written 
composition. It should be emphasized in all grades. Re- 
view all that has been said in previous chapters about writing 
letters. There is little to add. The important matters are 
to write naturally, convincingly, and in an entertaining way 
when writing social letters, and simply, pointedly, and cour- 
teously when writing business letters. In both cases the form 
must be that of established usage and must be exactly right. 

The following paragraphs from a letter sent by General 
Pershing to the officers of the United States Army in 1923 
may well form the basis of a profitable discussion of letter 
writing : 

Correspondence is as definitely an: index of character as either 
verbal expression or conduct, and correct usage requires constant 
effort in the choice of words, the construction of sentences, and the 
arrangement of paragraphs. 

Words used to express an idea should be carefully selected and 
so employed as to convey clearly and forcefully the exact meaning 
intended and no other. Sentences should be logically arranged in 


such sequence that the development of thought may be easily fol- 
lowed and the salient points readily recognized. 


It should rarely be necessary to write letters for practice 
in these grades. If the English work is based on projects, and 
the school life is enriched by excursions, by investigations of 
community affairs, and by correspondence with distant 
schools, the letters actually required will offer abundant 
opportunity for letter writing. 

Using tests and measurements. ‘Train both yourself and 
your pupils in using suitable scales for measuring the quality 
of the written compositions. Use also tests that are designed 
to diagnose and to drill. Review Chapter Eleven. 


256 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


GRAMMAR FACTS THAT AFFORD A MEANS OF SELF-HELP 


The following paragraphs outline the functional grammar 
of the seventh and eighth grades. They should be studied in 
connection with the grammar outlined on pages 213 to 215. 


SENTENCE ForMS 


Teach simple, complex, and compound sentences for the general 
purpose of securing in oral and written expression greater variety in 
sentence form, and also as a means of gaining clearness and force by 
selecting the sentence form that is best adapted to the thought to be 
expressed. ‘Teach each sentence form also for the additional reasons 
given below. 

1. The simple sentence. Teach the simple sentence as the form 
that, regardless of its length, has but one subject substantive and 
one predicate verb. ‘Teach the compound subject in order to secure 
the use of the correct form of the predicate verb, and the compound 
predicate verb in order to make clear its relation to the subject sub- 
stantive. 

2. The compound sentence. ‘Teach the compound sentence for its 
convenience in expressing independent, but closely related, thoughts. 
Show that the long run-on sentence is the kind of compound sen- 
tence not to use. Train the pupils to avoid combining in a compound 
sentence thoughts that are not closely related. Teach the common 
connectives employed, emphasizing and and but as illustrating re- 
spectively the idea of similarity and the idea of contrast. Teach the 
punctuation of the compound sentence. 

3. The complex sentence. ‘Teach the complex sentence as a means 
of indicating the relative importance of the ideas expressed in a 
sentence. Show that the principal clause contains the main 
thought, and that the subordinate clause as a rule performs the func- 
tion of either an adjective or an adverbial modifier. Teach care- 
fully the common connectives used in complex sentences, not by 
having the list of connectives committed to memory, but by train- 
ing the pupils to judge whether the connecting word secures the 
independence of the clause concerned, or whether it makes the clause 
work for the principal clause. Teach the punctuation of the com- 
plex sentence. (The noun clause need not be taught, since it is not 
consciously selected by elementary school pupils as a form of expres- 
sion. Moreover, when used, mistakes are not usually made.) 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 257 


ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 


Teach verbal analysis as a means of testing original sentences, 
and particularly as a means of comprehending sentences encountered 
in reading that are either very long and involved or that have their 
elements arranged in a transposed order. Unnecessarily minute 
analysis should be avoided. When the immediate purpose of analy- 
sis has been accomplished, it need proceed no further. 


Tue Parts or SPEECH 


1. Nouns. Continue to teach nouns as the names of the things 
we talk, write, or think about. Teach compound words, many of 
which are nouns, in order that the pupils may distinguish between 
those that should be written solid, those that are hyphenated, and 
the phrases, such as car fare, that are sometimes incorrectly written 
as if they were compound words. In connection with verb study, 
teach the agreement of the verb with the subject substantive in num- 
ber and person. 

2. Pronouns. A considerable percentage of the common errors 
of speech are concerned with the pronoun. ‘Teach the inflections 
of the personal pronoun in closest connection with verb study. The 
correct use of the nominative and accusative forms is altogether 
determined by the relation existing between the pronoun and the: 
verb. Since nouns do not change their forms when used as subjects 
and objects, the transitive verb is taught solely to help pupils to 
select the correct pronoun form, and for this reason transitive verbs, 
objects as completing the meaning of transitive verbs, and the cor- 
rect pronoun forms should be taught together, the pronoun form 
providing the motive. Teach relative pronouns in closest con- 
nection with the study of complex sentences, the selection of the 
relative pronoun being determined by its antecedent, and the case 
form of the pronoun selected being determined by its relation to the 
predicate verb of the clause it introduces. Teach interrogative pro- 
nouns in order to secure the correct case form. Teach the adjective 
function of certain possessive forms of pronouns, and treat these 
words as possessive adjectives, since the work done by a word alone 
determines the part of speech to which it belongs. Teach the predi- 
cate pronoun in order to secure the correct use of pronouns after 
linking verbs. ‘Teach agreement of pronouns and verbs. 


258 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


3. Verbs. ‘Teach the number and person of verbs in order to 
secure agreement in these particulars between a verb and its subject 
substantive. ‘Teach enough of tense to enable you to show that the 
form of almost all verbs changes in the third person singular of the 
present tense, and that this variation, together with the many forms 
of the verb to be, makes necessary the rule for the agreement of verbs 
with their subject substantives in tense as well as in person and num- 
ber. Teach transitive and intransitive verbs in order to make 
intelligent the selection of the correct form of a pronoun used as the 
object of a transitive verb, and in order to secure the correct use of 
pronouns after linking verbs. In connection with linking verbs, 
teach the pupils to distinguish between the use of a predicate ad- 
jective after a linking verb and an adverb as a modifier of a verb. 

Teach enough about regular and irregular verbs to make it con- 
venient to discuss intelligently the forms of the verbs that are 
frequently misused. ‘Teach verbals in order to avoid “dangling 
participles”’ in sentences, and to distinguish between predicate verbs 
and verb forms that do the work of some other part of speech — parti- 
ciples and gerunds — although it is not necessary to use the latter 
term, if verbal noun is preferred because it is self-explanatory. 

Teach the importance of the verb in the sentence, and give much 
attention to the selection of suitable verbs and to the correction of 
verb errors. ‘Teach the spelling of difficult verb forms, particularly 
of ed and ing forms, and the varying forms of verbs ending in y. 

4. Adjectives. 'Teach adjectives as the modifiers of nouns and 
pronouns. ‘Teach the comparison of adjectives in order to secure 
the selection of the correct form when comparing the qualities of 
things, and also for the purpose of training pupils consciously to 
avoid the abuse of the superlative form. Teach the predicate ad- 
jective in order to avoid confusing predicate adjectives and adverbial 
modifiers of verbs. Continue the struggle against overworked 
adjectives, and give much attention to the selection of suitable 
adjectives, and to synonyms. ‘Teach the spelling of trouble- 
some adjectives, notably the comparative and superlative forms 
of adjectives ending in y. 

5. Adverbs. Teach adverbs as modifiers of verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. ‘Teach the comparison of adverbs in order to 
insure the use of the correct forms. Give much attention to the 
selection of suitable adverbs, and the avoidance of those that are 
habitually overworked. Distinguish constantly between adjectives 
and adverbs, particularly after linking verbs. 


COMPOSITION IN HIGHER GRADES 259 


6. Prepositions. ‘Teach the preposition as a word introducing a 
phrase that may perform the work of either an adjective or an adverb. 
In other words, teach the preposition as the word that introduces a 
phrase, the entire phrase doing the work of a single part of speech. 
Give particular attention to the form of the pronoun when used as 
the object of a preposition in a phrase. If at, in and into, and 
between and among are misused in your class, give much drill on the 
correct use. Give much attention to securing variety in expression 
by using prepositional phrases frequently instead of adjectives or 
adverbs, or instead of adjective or adverbial clauses. 

7. Conjunctions. Give special attention to conjunctions in con- 
nection with the study of compound and complex sentences. It 
does not seem necessary to have lists of codrdinating and subor- 
dinating conjunctions committed to memory. Indeed, when chil- 
dren learn these lists, they are more likely to decide whether a sen- 
tence is complex or compound by trying to recall to which group the 
conjunction used belongs, than by thinking whether the clauses are 
so joined that both remain independent or so joined that one is sub- 
ordinated to the other. In fact, it is not necessary to learn the terms 
coérdinating conjunction and subordinating conjunction in the ele- 
mentary school. Give much attention to conjunctions that work in 
pairs, such as neither — nor, in order to insure the use of the correct 
verb form. 

8. Interjections. See page 215. 


For Tuoucut AND Discussion 


1. Do you feel certain that you are utilizing all the self-help possi- 
bilities of your pupils? Scrutinize closely your method of conduct- 
ing a so-called recitation and see if you are doing some things that 
your pupils should do for themselves. 

2. How large a proportion of your pupils are still largely depend- 
ent upon you when a new topic is to be developed? Is it fair to 
judge the quality of a teacher’s work by the proportion of her pupils 
who require little help in supervised study ? 

8. If possible, study and discuss with other teachers the Dalton 
plan of study and teaching. What are its advantages to the more 
able students? to the weaker pupils? 

4. Is it more desirable that your pupils leave the junior high 
school with a large body of facts or with well-developed self-help 
habits? Why? Is there any necessary gulf between knowledge 
and power? How can the two be developed in conjunction ? 


ra 


“ 
we 
of 


260 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


For READING AND StTupyY 


Refer to the lists at the close of Chapters Six, Seven, and Eight, 


and also to the lists at the close of Chapters Ten and Eleven. Study 
also the following : 


Davis. The Technique of Teaching. The Macmillan Company. 
(Read Chapter IV.) 

Dewey. The Dalton Laboratory Plan. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

McGrecor. Supervised Study. The Macmillan Company. 

Parkuurst. Education on the Dalton Plan. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 
Part I. Public School Publishing Company. (Read Chapter 
IV, ‘‘New Materials for the Junior High School.’’) 


The literature devoted to the junior high school is very large and 
is constantly growing. Form the habit of keeping in touch with the 
articles in leading educational journals and with the newer books 
that are appearing from time to time. 


a rt 
nf | . oe UA i iA 
, Oa ay pt 

‘ uf MF a 

H t 4 DP OF f : ‘ft ys 
SNe ae 

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yet owe HAPTER TEN 


INFORMAL LANGUAGE TEACHING 


WHY INFORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS ARE NEEDED 


THE preceding four chapters concern the more formal teach- 
ing of composition. The lessons are designed to cultivate the 
power to think and to express related thoughts in clear, accu- 
rate, exact language. Some pupils acquire this power and use 
it in oral and written composition exercises, but neglect it at 
other times. The teacher must be on the alert and seize all 
opportunities for language training afforded by activities 
whose immediate aim is not! a language habit or skill. In 
other words, the teacher must do more or less informal lan- 
guage teaching. This chapter gives suggestions for the work. 
Read once more the section on “ Informal Conversation ” 
beginning on page 12. 


WORTH-WHILE ACTIVITIES 


The relation between the language value and the more 
specific value of a worth-while activity. Much is demanded 
of the schools in these days, and unless all who control the 
curriculum are on their guard, time will be given to matters 
that are not essential. It is important to note that the lan- 
guage value of a worth-while activity is dependent on the 
same characteristics that make it valuable for other purposes. 
Some of these characteristics are considered in the following 
section. It is doubtful whether any school activity that does 
not illustrate at least several of them has much real worth. 

Characteristics of a worth-while activity. A worth-while 
activity is one that serves a useful purpose. One character- 
istic of such an activity is stated in each of the following para- 
graphs, and it is pointed out that worth-while conversation 
also has the same quality. In order to have in mind a con- 

261 


262 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


crete example, let us imagine that a fourth-grade class are to 
make a doll house for a younger group of children. gs 


1. A worth-while activity is motivated. In planning to do some- 
thing for other children, and deciding what to do, the pupils talk 
with a definite purpose. The worth-while conversation is also motivated. 

2. A worth-while activity is based on the children’s experience. 
In order to plan a doll house, the pupils must use the knowledge 
of houses gained by experience. Their own experiences are all 
that children have to talk about. The worth-while conversation 
also is based on expervence. 

3. A worth-while activity adds to previous experience. As the 
making of the doll house is discussed, the pupils get from the sugges- 
tions of their classmates and from the constructive questions of the 
teacher new ideas about making such a house and its furniture. 
Talking about these new features often requires the use of new words 
to express the new ideas. The worth-while conversation also adds to 
former experience. 

4. A worth-while activity requires thought. ‘To make the best 
possible doll house, the children must observe; they must compare 
ideas and choose between opposing ones; they must express their 
ideas in an orderly way. The worth-while conversation also requires 
thought, since thought alone provides the something worth saying that 
qustifies speech. 

5. A worth-while activity demands initiative and_ self-activity. 
Initiative and self-activity result from an inner urge, and imply 
originality. As the various objects for the doll house are made, 
each should express the original thought of the maker, modified by 
the criticism and the suggestion through which his classmates in 
turn express their originality. The worth-while conversation also 
expresses original ideas. 


THE ART OF QUESTIONING 


The importance of questioning. The question is probably 
the most effective single tool that the teacher has for securing 
thought and its orderly expression. It has been said that a 
good questioner is a good teacher. The statement is prob- 
ably true, although questioning is by no means all there is to 
teaching. The question method is fundamental. It secures 


INFORMAL LANGUAGE TEACHING 263 


thought by directing the pupil’s attention to what is essential ; 
by leading him to see the relative worth of facts; by empha- 
sizing cause and effect ; by training him to pass from phase to 
phase of a subject in an orderly way; and by requiring him 
to form conclusions based on the facts discussed. It is also 
a convenient means of review and of a certain type of testing. 

There is no royal road to the goal. The best questioners 
are those who have long schooled themselves in the task 
through intelligent study and conscientious practice. ‘There 
are undoubtedly some teachers who question well almost 
instinctively, but they are few in number. 

The references at the close of this chapter that are con- 
cerned with the art of questioning will well repay study. 
The study should be followed by much practice. In the 
meantime here are a few suggestions that may be immedi- 
ately helpful : 


1.” Keep in mind your motive for questioning. If you wish simply 
to review facts, you will ask direct, straightforward questions. If 
you wish to start a stream of thought, you will ask questions that a 
pupil can answer only by considering previous experience or new 
facts set before him by the questions asked. If you wish to test 
power, you will ask a question whose answer involves the applica- 
tion to new matter of a principle already taught. This type of 
question reviews a principle by requiring the child to apply it under 
new conditions. 

2. Keep before your eyes in true perspective the matter about which 
you are to question. If the pupils are to direct their attention to 
salient points, you must have clearly in mind the relative importance 
of the facts. Aim at the high lights. 

3. In preparing a lesson, write out a series of questions. Test 
each to find out if answering it will demand all the power the pupil 
has. Frame the same question in several ways, and try to judge 
by past experience which form will be most effective. 

4. Do not hastily attribute poor answers to ignorance or heedlessness 
or dullness of intellect. 'They may be due to some defect in your 
question. Note carefully the answers you secure. They will often 
reveal clearly where the trouble with your question lies. 


264 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Types of questions to avoid. There are certain types of 
questions that young teachers sometimes fall into the habit 
of using, to the serious weakening of their teaching. Here 
are some types to avoid: 


1. Avoid the petty question The petty question is one that is 
unnecessarily minute. The following illustration is by no means 
exceptional. A second-grade class had read this paragraph from a 
reader : 


A long time ago the magpie was the only bird that knew how to build a 
nest. The other birds came and asked her to teach them. 


Here are the questions substantially as asked : 


What bird is the story about? 

What did the magpie know how to do? 

Did any other bird know how to build a nest? 
Who came to see the magpie? 

Why did they come? 

When did all this happen ? 


Here are six questions, all on a dead level. The important facts 
are that the magpie could build a nest and the other birds came to 
learn how to do it. These are the facts to bring out. 

2. As arule, avoid the question that can be answered by “‘Yes”’ or 
“No.” If such a question is asked merely to secure the expression 
of opinion, it should immediately be followed by “‘Why” or “How” 
or whatever word is needed to draw out the reason for the opinion 
expressed. 

3. Avoid the leading question. Direct the thoughts of the pupil, 
but do not make thought unnecessary by suggesting the answer. 

4. Avoid the uninteresting question. If interest is not aroused, 
thought is stifled. ‘This caution should be kept in mind when test- 
ing silent reading, or when a story is being reproduced. A question 
relating to unessential details is uninteresting to a child because it 
diverts his attention from the point of the story. 

5. Avoid the question that is too broad. The too broad question 
is the antithesis of the petty question. In the higher grades, after 
the pupils have had much training in expressing several related 
thoughts in a single sentence, one question would suffice for the 


INFORMAL LANGUAGE TEACHING 265 


magpie episode: “‘How came the magjre long ago to be a teacher?” 
But this question is too broad for the second- or third-grade child. 


TEACHING CHILDREN HOW TO ANSWER QUESTIONS 


Getting the point of the question. The first step is to train 
children to get the point of the question they are to answer. 
Suppose this question were asked: “‘ Which poem of Robert 
Louis Stevenson is your favorite?”’ The child should read 
the question thoughtfully and discover that it calls for an 
expression of his opinion of Robert Louis Stevenson’s poems. 
The next step is for him to make up his mind. 

Answering the question in the most direct way. These 
answers might be given: 


The poem of Robert Louis Stevenson that is my favorite is ““The 
Wind.” 

“The Wind”’ is my favorite. 

My favorite Stevenson poem is ‘The Wind.” 

“The Wind”’ is my favorite Robert Louis Stevenson poem. 


The child who gave the first answer tried to include all the 
words of the question. This habit often leads to long, 
involved answers. ‘Train the pupils to answer a question in 
the most direct way. Which of the four answers above is the 
best ? 

One often hears in geography and history classes answers 
that obscure the thought by a multitude of words. Before 
answering a question, a child should take these steps: 


Think what the question means. 
Think what the answer is. 
Think how to express the answer in the most direct way. 


Avoiding unnatural answers. It was formerly the custom 
to require a pupil to answer every question in a statement. 
This habit results in stilted, unnatural answers. Remember 


266 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


that all forms of expression that are permissible out of school 
should be accepted in school. 


FURTHER OPPORTUNITIES FOR INFORMAL CONVERSATION 


Informal conversation in connection with ordinary school 
subjects. In a school that emphasizes the self-help way of 
learning, every recitation offers an opportunity for informal 
conversation. The history, geography, and nature periods 
are not used solely, nor even mainly, for reproducing the facts 
of the textbook. The children question each other, express 
opinions, and bring up additional topics for discussion. In 
all this work the teacher is alert to utilize every chance for 
strengthening the work in hand by requiring the pupils to 
think and to express their thoughts clearly. Trying to express 
a thought clearly makes the thinking more effectte. This is 
one of the ways in which language is a profitable servant to all 
other subjects. 

It has been suggested that one period be selected each day 
when the language of the pupils will receive as careful atten- 
tion as during the language period. It is a good plan to 
appoint in advance one or more critics whose business it will 
be to watch for particularly good English and also for errors. r) 
Just before the close of the period the critics will report. On 
the following day a special effort will be made to improve 
the English in accordance with both the good and the weak 
features pointed out by the critics. 

The conversation lesson. Other opportunities for informal 
conversation occur in discussing subjects that do not fall into 
the ordinary school categories. Many teachers find it diffi- 
cult to secure class discussion of topics of general interest. 
They report that only a few children talk, and that these are 
usually the children who do not need the training. Other 
objections are that the children ramble from phase to phase 
of a subject, and little is accomplished. 


INFORMAL LANGUAGE TEACHING 267 


The remedy lies in having both teacher and pupil prepare 
carefully for the exercise. To announce a subject at the 
beginning of a period and expect the pupils to enter at once 
into an animated discussion is idle. If the textbook does not 
provide for informal conversation lessons, the teacher should 
select in advance the phase or phases of the subject that are 
to be discussed, and frame definite questions that will direct 
the thinking of the children before they come to class, and 
guide their conversation after the discussion begins. The 
following lesson taken from a textbook will be suggestive. 
The children would study it independently before coming to 
class. 


CONVERSATION LESSON 


THRIFT 


A common way of helping at home is by doing a share 
of the work. Today you will discuss other ways. The 
following questions will give you hints, but you need 
not hold to these. They will bring other things to your 
mind. What does thrift mean? 

What things besides food do your parents buy for you ? 
Do you know how much any of these things cost? 
Which wear out rather quickly? Does it make any dif- 
ference how fast they wear out? How does taking care 
of these things help at home? 

What can you do to make the following things last as 
long as possible: shoes, dresses, jackets, mittens, gloves, 
carpets, books, hats? What other things in the home 
need care to make them last longer? _ 

In what ways can you take care of the school property ? 
Does the school property belong to you? Does thrift 
matter at school? How? 


268 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


In class, each question should be answered promptly and 
briefly by several children. When no additional facts are 
brought out, pass to the next point. 

Train the children to challenge politely any facts that they 
question, and to be ready to defend theirownopinions. Inci- 
dentally, the pupils will learn to yield a point cheerfully when 
convinced that they are in the wrong. 

At the close of such a lesson, it is a good plan to have the 
\. children state in a few short sentences the most important 
facts that were agreed upon. 

In the higher grades, certainly in the sixth grade, the pupils 
may prepare the questions that are to direct the discussion. 
Or they may put on the blackboard several topics for discus- 
sion, appointing a pupil to open the discussion of each topic. 
When the children have reached this stage, they will often 
suggest methods of procedure that will astonish the teacher 
who does not realize how independent children become when 
responsibility is placed in their hands. 

Conversation lessons as a means of vocabulary growth. 
Self-active children with original thoughts to express require 
a constantly growing vocabulary. Picturesque adjectives 
for describing, expressive verbs for making vigorous state- 
ments, appropriate synonyms for expressing shades of mean- 
ing — all these are a felt need, and are therefore sought for 
and used. The dictionary becomes an ever present friend. 

Conversation as an ally of projects. Imagine that a 
seventh-grade class has selected as a project the making of a 
history of the early days of the city or town. It becomes 
necessary to read intelligently and select what is pertinent, 
to talk with aged persons who have good memories, to take 
notes of the information obtained, possibly to write to former 
residents of the town, to sift all information and select what 
is needed, to report and discuss in class, to decide on the form 
of the report, and to prepare it. This is a history project. 
What is its language value? 


INFORMAL LANGUAGE TEACHING 269 


For THouGHT AND Discussion 


1. In what ways are informal conversation and composition 
mutually helpful ? 

2. What worth-while activities might your pupils carry on in the 
community? What methods would you employ to arouse the 
interest of the class to such a degree that they would voluntarily 
undertake a project having a definite purpose ? 

3. Select an interesting paragraph within the comprehension of 
your pupils and frame the questions you would ask to secure its 
reproduction in the question-and-answer way. Change the ques- 
tions to meet the needs of a somewhat younger class. Change 
them once more for pupils maturer than your own. 

4, What exercises can you invent for securing a motivated ex- 
change of written questions and answers among your pupils? 


For READING AND STuDY 
THE ART OF QUESTIONING 


Baciey. The Educative Process. The Macmillan Company. 

Horne. Story-Telling, Questioning, and Study, Chapter II. The 
Macmillan Company. 

Monror. Cyclopedia of Education, Volume VI, ‘‘ Questioning.” 
The Macmillan Company. 


PROJECTS 


Kiupatrick. The Project Method. Bureau of Publications, Teach- 
ers College, Columbia University. 


See also the list on page 42. 


CHAPTER ELEVEN 


CoMPOSITION STANDARDS AND MEASURING SCALES 


WHY COMPOSITION SCALES ARE NEEDED 


The unreliability of individual judgment. In an earlier 
chapter reference was made to a study based on several 
thousand compositions collected from cities and rural com- 
munities in thirteen states. Several of the purposes of the 
study were achieved, but in one important particular the 
compositions failed to furnish the desired information. 

Each teacher was asked to select from the compositions of 
the entire class five which in her judgment represented aver- 
age ability for the grade concerned, two that were above aver- 
age, and two that were below average. It was suggested that 
in schools having two or more classes of the same grade, the 
teachers codperate in selecting and classifying the composi- 
tions, thus increasing the reliability of the results. Although 
only three groupings were requested, and the grading was to 
be based wholly on the judgment of the teacher, it was hoped 
that the six or seven hundred compositions from each grade 
would afford reliable data for a set of grade standards. This 
did not prove to be the case. 

The widest variation of judgment prevailed. Some 
teachers magnified the importance of mechanical matters, and 
ranked as above average compositions that were good as to 
form, but devoid of ideas. Others ranked as above average 
compositions that were rich in thought and in evidences of 
individuality, but were full of errors in spelling and punctu- 
ation. In fact, there was not enough agreement as to what 
constitutes satisfactory work in a given grade to warrant the 
use of the compositions for establishing grade standards. 

This is by no means an exceptional experience. One might 
infer that if the teachers had been considering the same set 

270 


MEASURING SCALES 271 


of compositions, greater uniformity of judgment would have 
resulted. But even when a set of compositions are graded by 
a considerable number of teachers, the same wide variation 
in judgment appears. 

In an article on “Setting up Targets” in The English |. 
Journal for September, 1919, the author, S. A. Leonard, relates "4 
how thirteen teachers rated thirty compositions selected by a 
principal as the ten best, ten median, and ten unsatisfactory. 
Not one of the compositions was considered satisfactory by 
all the readers ; three compositions were rated as satisfactory 
by seven readers, while six other readers considered the same 
compositions as unsatisfactory; one reader considered but 
three of the compositions as passing, while two passed twenty 
out of the thirty. This evidence of the untrustworthiness of 
the unaided individual judgment proves the necessity of 
reliable standards and tests if compositions are to be rated 
with the fairness to which the pupils are entitled. 


KINDS OF COMPOSITION SCALES REQUIRED 


In the sense in which the word is here employed, a scale is a 
graduated measuring instrument. At least two types of 
composition scales are desirable. The grade teacher needs a 
scale whose units are compositions actually written by pupils 
of the same grade as her own. The principal or supervisor 
needs a standardized scale that may be used all along the 
line. 

MAKING GRADE COMPOSITION SCALES 


The method of scale-making here described has been found 
effective. Itis simple and may be used wherever a number of 
teachers of the same grade can conveniently work together. 

Preparatory work. Before beginning the codperative work 
of scale-making, each teacher should prepare herself for the 
task. Here are some things it pays to do: 


272 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


1. Keep clearly in mind the grade composition objectives as out- 
lined by the textbook or by the course of study. Regard these 
objectives as targets at which the children will be taught to aim. 
Make your teaching specific, and not general. 

2. Compare the compositions of your pupils with those written 
by children of the same grade in other schools in the community. 


* Tf the comparison is unfavorable to your pupils, strengthen the weak 


spots discovered. 

3. Compare the compositions of your pupils with compositions 
regarded as standard in other places. A book like Mahoney’s 
Standards in English is invaluable for this purpose. If the composi- 
tions of your pupils do not measure up to these minimum standards, 
emphasize composition work for a time. 

4. Develop your judgment by criticizing compositions minutely. 
Break away from general descriptive terms — good, excellent, fair, 
poor, and the like — and note in precise terms the merits and the 
defects of each composition. 

5. Compare the compositions of different pupils, and rank them 
in accordance with their merits, noting definitely why one is better 
than another. 


Making the scale. Let us imagine that a fifth-grade scale 
is to be made. The first step is to collect a large number 
of compositions written by fifth-grade children. Preferably 
these should be one-paragraph narratives of personal experi- 
ences. This will insure for the scale units of the same general 
type. Some teachers prefer to use compositions on the same 
subject written at a specified time. 

The way in which the compositions shall be rated in making 
the scale will be determined by the way in which the scale is 
to be used by teacher and pupils. So difficult is it to rank a 
composition from every point of view that it seems desirable 
to rate form and content separately. This plan makes it 
necessary for the scale to be so constructed that each unit 
composing it shall have the same rating for both form and 
content. The following method of procedure will insure the 
production of such a scale. 

For convenience in recording results, the compositions 


MEASURING SCALES 273 


should be numbered serially. Each teacher should then 
read all the compositions and classify them in accordance 
with the following suggestions : 


1. Put in a group by themselves all compositions so unequal in 
form and content that these aspects would require different ratings. 
Eventually these compositions will be thrown out because they are 
unsuitable for a scale that is to be made up of units having the same 
rating for both form and content. 

2. Throw the remaining compositions, according to their merit, 
into groups, five being a good number. Make no marks on the 
compositions, but record the numbers of the compositions in each 
group. A may be used for the best group, B for the next best, and 
so on. 


When all the teachers have finished reading and classify- 
ing the compositions, they should work as a committee of the 
whole in making the scale. The following method of pro- 
cedure is recommended : 


1. Tabulate the results of the individual readings of the com- 
positions. 

2. Throw out at once any compositions on which there was little 
unanimity of opinion, and also the compositions that were not 
ranked because their form and content value were unequal. 

3. Put each of the remaining compositions into the group desig- 
nated by the largest number of the readers. 

4. Select from each of these groups a typical specimen for the 
scale. Naturally, the specimen selected from each group will be the 
one that was assigned to the group concerned by the largest number 
of teachers. Should several specimens be equal in this respect, the 
compositions concerned should be read once more with a view to dis- 
covering which one is of most nearly equal merit in form and content. 

5. Attach to each of the five sample compositions notes that 
clearly state its merits and defects. 


These five compositions with the notes will form the 
scale. They may be numbered in accordance with their 
rank, beginning with the best, either by the first five figures 
or by the first five letters. Some teachers prefer initial 


274 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


letters, as, for instance, E (Excellent) as the label of the 
best composition; G (Good) for the next in rank; F (Fair) 
for the next; P (Poor) for the next; and U (Unsatisfactory) 
for the poorest. While these terms are general, they are not 
objectionable when the good and the poor features of each 
composition are definitely listed. 

A scale made in the way described may not have equal steps 
between its units, but it will be very serviceable. If the help 
of a statistical expert is available, the scale may be made a 
more exact measuring instrument. The reading list at the 
end of this chapter contains several references to accounts of 
the way in which groups of teachers have made their own 
measuring scales, some with the aid of an expert and one 
without such aid. 

The teacher’s use of the scale. As early in the year as 
possible, and thereafter at stated intervals, the teacher should 
compare a set of compositions with the scale, and rank each 
composition separately for form and content. Itis not a good 
plan to average the marks. A chain is no stronger than 
its weakest link. The pupil should understand that his com- 
positions have a form and a content value, and that form 
and content must improve hand in hand. Strength in both 
respects marks a strong composition; weakness in either 
marks a poor composition regardless of the quality of the 
other element. It should be the aim of each pupil to secure 
the highest possible rating for both form and content. 

The use of the scale will reveal to the teacher the individual 
needs of her pupils and thus direct her effort into the channel 
where it is most needed. The results of successive tests will 
indicate improvement or the lack of it. If improvement is 
not manifested, it becomes the teacher’s problem to discover 
the reason and to plan her work accordingly. 

The pupil’s use of the scale. A simple “‘ home-made ” 
scale like the one described can readily be used by the pupils. 


MEASURING SCALES 275 


Make sure that they understand the critical notes appended 
to the compositions of the scale, and that they have much 
practice in estimating the worth of compositions before try- 
ing to use the scale. 

A feasible plan is to divide the class into groups of four or 
five pupils. Each pupil of each group will rank the composi- 
tions of the group independently, and then the ratings will be 
compared and agreement reached. The teacher will fre- 
quently be called in to do umpire duty, and this gives her a 
good opportunity to point out matters that children some- 
times overlook. 

It is convenient for each child to have a copy of the scale, 
but its too frequent use should be discouraged. Some chil- 
dren in their eagerness to improve try to imitate the composi- 
tions of the scale, and this, of course, is undesirable. In 
other cases a too great familiarity with the scale breeds con- 
tempt. The pupils who have the scales only when they are 
to employ them for measuring purposes are likely to gain most 
from their use. 

Recording results. A simple graph like the one on the 
following page may be prepared by the children themselves 
for recording the results of successive measurements. The 
letters A, B, C, D, and E refer to the five units of the scale, 
A being the highest. The record shows that the composition 
written by Jack Humphreys on September 15 was rated as a 
D composition; the one written on December 15 showed 
marked improvement; that written on March 15 had the 
same rating as the preceding composition; and that of June 
15 climbed into the 4 class. It has often been noted that a 
particularly good composition has for its subject some 
unusual experience full of incident. Perhaps Jack Hum- 
phreys had enjoyed a trip in an airplane just before writing 
the June compositon. Or is such marked improvement 
possible under ordinary circumstances? The teacher who 


276 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 





answers this question with ‘ Yes ” is the one who is likely to 
train pupils of the Jack Humphreys type. 

The ultimate advantage to be derived from the composition 
scale will be determined largely by the use made of the time 
between measurements. The use of the scale reveals needs. 
It becomes the task of the teacher so to direct the self-help 
activities of her pupils that these needs shall be met. 


STANDARD COMPOSITION SCALES 


It is difficult and perhaps idle to predict the future of the 
standardized composition scale in the hands of the grade 
teacher. It may be that when teachers are better trained in 
both the theory and the use of the scales, and when the scales 
are improved, they will be more commonly and more effec- 
tively used than at present. The standardized scale in the 
hands of untrained teachers produces results as divergent as 
those noted at the beginning of this chapter. Unless a 
teacher is in a position to make a thorough study of the scale, 
and to be trained by an expert to use it, it is probably best for 
her to leave to others the task of administering it in her class, 


MEASURING SCALES Q77 


getting from the expert all necessary information as to results 
and their significance. 

To the principal, supervisor, or other administrative officer, 
the standardized scale is becoming a necessity, and its con- 
stant improvement is highly desirable. Some of the standard 
composition scales are listed below, as are also some books of 
importance on the subject of educational measurements. 


DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND DRILLS 


It is not only in estimating the worth of compositions that 
the psychologist has come to the assistance of the teacher. 
There are now available tests that reveal the weak spots in a 
pupil’s English armor and make it possible for the teacher to 
plan wisely for corrective work. Tests of this sort no teacher 
can afford to ignore. They are not described in detail be- 
cause it is absolutely necessary that the teacher who wishes 
to use them get the material, study carefully all directions 
that accompany them, and use them exactly as suggested. 
A few are listed below. Since rapid strides in the refine- 
ment of testing material are being made, ambitious teachers 
should keep in touch with publishers in order that they 
may promptly be informed of the issue of new material. 


For READING AND STUDY 


The literature of tests is now so large that no attempt is made 
here to do justice to the subject. The purpose is rather to give under 
several heads a few references that will help a student to become 
familiar with the theory and the use of measuring scales in English. 


BOOKS ON THE GENERAL SUBJECT OF TESTS 


Hines. A Guide to Educational Measurements. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 

McCay. How to Measure in Education. The Macmillan Company. 
(This book will meet the needs of the teacher who wishes to go 
very thoroughly into the subject of testing.) . 

Monroz. Measuring the Results of Teaching. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. (Read Chapter IX.) 


278 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


Presszy, S. L. anp L.C. Introduction to the Use of Standard Tests. 
World Book Company. (Probably there is at the present time 
no better book for the beginner, or for the teacher who has not 
time for an exhaustive study. The book has been made as non- 
technical as possible. Both general principles and special prob- 
lems are discussed. ) 

Wiuson-Hoxe. How to Measure. The Macmillan Company. 
(This is a clear and a simple treatise.) 


HOW COMPOSITION SCALES ARE MADE 


Hosic. ‘“‘Composition Standards in the Elementary School.” 
Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- 
cation, Part I. (This article tells how the teachers of the Parker 
School, Chicago, made a scale. The scale is included.) 

—— ‘The Essentials of Composition and Grammar.” Fourteenth 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. 
(This article tells how the Harvard-Newton Scale was made.) 

Witson, G. M. “‘Home-Made Composition Scales.” Elementary 
English Review, September, 1924. (This article tells how a com- 
pany of teachers worked under expert direction in making a scale 
from compositions collected for the purpose. The scale produced 
is given. ‘The article is extremely suggestive.) 


STANDARDIZED COMPOSITION SCALES 


Bautuiovu. Harvard-Newton Scales for the Measurement of English 
Composition. ‘Harvard-Newton Bulletin, No. 2. Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. (Explicit notes are attached to each unit of this 
scale, enumerating the merits and the defects of the specimen.) 

Hituecas. A Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Com- 
position. ‘Teachers College, Columbia University. 

Hupetson. Hudelson English Composition Scale. World Book 
Company. (This book contains clear directions for the use of the 
scale and for the help of scorers. It also gives norms and contains 
compositions for practice in using the scale.) 

Lewis. Lewis English Composition Scales. World Book Company. 
(A scale for measuring narration and four scales for different types 
of letters.) 

THORNDIKE. The Thorndike Extension of the Hillegas Scale. 
Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 


MEASURING SCALES 279 


Trasuk. Nassau County Supplement to the Hillegas Scale. Bureau 
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 

Van WaGENEN. Van Wagenen English Composition Scales. World 
Book Company. 


DIAGNOSTIC TESTS 


Cuarters. Charters Diagnostic Language Tests for Grades 3 to 8. 
Public School Publishing Company. 

Charters Diagnostic Language and Grammar Tests for Grades 7 
and 8. Public School Publishing Company. 

KetLey-Rucu-TrerMan. Stanford Achievement Test. World Book 
Company. (This test includes language among other subjects.) 

Srarcw. Starch Punctuation Scale. Public School Publishing 
Company. 

Witson. Wilson Language Error Test. World Book Company. 
(This is a simple test designed to detect language errors.) 





Notre. The graph on page 276 shows the ratings of four com- 
positions whose form and content were of equal merit. Whenever 
a pupil’s compositions have different ratings for form and content, 
he should use two lines, one continuous and the other dotted. It 
then becomes his task to give especial attention to the feature 
that has the lowest rating, and to strive to make his work uni- 
formly good. He will be interested in bringing the lines together 
on his graph. 


CHAPTER TWELVE 


GRADE OBJECTIVES IN ENGLISH 


INTRODUCTION 


THE grade objectives listed in this chapter concern only 
those phases of English work that are discussed in this book. 
The objectives in reading, literature, and spelling can easily 
be added by a teacher who wishes to include all the English 
work of the school. 


FIRST-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To talk freely and without self-consciousness about outside 
interests and all school activities; to tell orally a story of two 
or three short sentences in a way to interest classmates or 
other audience; to express thought by action as well as by 
words as a basis for dramatization ; to add to the vocabulary 
new words demanded by projects and expanding interests in 
general; to overcome, or at least to begin the struggle against, 
a few of the errors of usage commonly made in the class, 
games being the principal means employed. 

To write own name; to write single words to serve as 
labels or for some other genuine purpose; to write one short 
statement based on an oral lesson, and to begin it with a cap- 
ital letter and end it with a period. 


SECOND-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


Building on the power acquired in the first grade, to talk 
with greater fluency and confidence in connection with proj- 
ects, all other school activities, and all interests outside of 
school; to tell to an audience a story of a personal experience 
in several clear sentences; to dramatize a simple story; to 
reproduce a short story in response to questions; to add to 


the vocabulary new words made necessary by growing inter- 
280 


GRADE OBJECTIVES IN ENGLISH 281 


ests; to continue, if necessary, the struggle against the com- 
mon errors of usage begun in the first grade, and to overcome 
several other common errors by means of games and simple 
drill sentences. 

To write address and parent’s name; to continue to write 
labels, if they are needed; to write a story of two or three 
short sentences, the story having first been developed in an 
oral lesson; to begin each sentence with a capital letter and 
end it with a period or a question mark, as required; to use 
capital letters in writing all names and the pronoun J. 


THIRD-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To begin to study independently with the help of the text- 
book. 

To talk freely with classmates in planning projects and in 
other school activities, asking and answering questions, stat- 
ing plainly the reasons for suggestions made, and defending 
these suggestions, if necessary. To improve story-telling 
by consciously taking the following steps, which would be 
successively developed: choosing one phase of a subject; 
telling facts in their right order; using good beginning sen- 
tences; describing simple objects by making clear word-pic- 
tures of them. 

To use the ears as well as the voice in order to become good 
listeners, good critics, and good interpreters of oral directions. 
To increase sentence power and vocabulary by means of 
dramatization, conversation in class, and reproduction in 
which some of the author’s words are consciously selected to 
be used. ‘To overcome a few of the common errors of usage 
by daily sentence drills, games, and an occasional language 
drive. 

To learn how to copy and to arrange a paragraph well on 
paper; to improve written work by taking the following 
steps: copying a team note; writing a note from dictation ; 


282 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


writing an original note; copying a team story of one para- 
graph; writing a short original paragraph after oral discus- 
sion. To learn the significance of the paragraph form; to 
use capitals and such marks of punctuation as are required 
by the written work. 

It is assumed that all lines of work begun in the third grade 
will be continued as needed. The objectives for the remain- 
ing grades are in the main limited to new features. 


FOURTH-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To improve story-telling, the stories remaining short, by 
giving more attention to beginning sentences that at once 
enlist the interest of the audience; by explaining how things 
are done or made; by choosing good titles and strengthening 
the sentence sense by distinguishing between sentences and 
titles that are not sentences. To enlarge the vocabulary by 
consciously adding to it useful new words encountered in 
every line of work. To establish a closer relation between 
language and all other school subjects, with special attention 
to the use of short, clear sentences, and answering questions 
in a simple, direct manner. 

To write a one-paragraph story with due regard to sentence 
structure and vocabulary. To use the full letter form, and 
to appreciate the significance of paragraphs in letters; to use 
capitals and marks of punctuation as required. 

To criticize simply and directly own work and that of 
classmates, having in mind the aims set before the class; to 
consider criticism as a means of helpfulness. 


FIFTH-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To assume responsibility at the beginning of the year for 
determining what work the class as a whole and individuals 
in the class do well, and what work needs strengthening; to 
strengthen the weak places by self-help means, among which 


GRADE OBJECTIVES IN ENGLISH 283 


the following should be prominent: review; making and 
using notebooks ; using the textbook whenever in doubt ; using 
the dictionary for the spelling, the meaning, and the pronun- 
ciation of words. To use the eyes more keenly for detecting 
mistakes in written work and for enriching experience by 
observing closely what is going on in the environment. 

To improve story-telling by learning to stick to the point; 
by using direct quotations; by using exact rather than 
general terms; by learning to organize paragraphs; and by 
adding force and variety to sentences through combining 
thoughts in various ways. 

To begin the more technical study of the sentence by learn- 
ing the functions of the subject and predicate, the lessons 
being motivated and taught inductively. 

To learn to use quotation marks in written work, and such 
other punctuation as is required by the work done. To write 
motivated letters as the principal form of written work, but 
not to the exclusion of one-paragraph compositions. 


SIXTH-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To learn to study with independence, using the textbook 
in every possible way, including the mastery of the Index. 
To increase the power of self-help by training the ears to 
become sensitive to oral mistakes; and by learning to use a 
library through the card catalog. 

To improve story-telling by additional training in descrip- 
tion; by explanation of more complex activities than in the 
lower grades; by trying to convince; and by distinguishing 
definitely between describing accurately what is seen and tell- 
ing a story about what is seen. 

To improve social letters by avoiding useless beginning and 
ending sentences, and by considering the interests of the per- 
son addressed. To write simple, motivated business letters. 
To understand the paragraph both in oral and written compo- 


284 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


sition, and to make simple outlines. To write a paragraph 
that will be practically free from common mistakes. 

To learn the parts of speech wholly as a means of more in- 
telligent attack upon errors of usage. 

To organize class teams and assume responsibility ; to use 
the team organization as a means of promoting socialized 
activity. 

Before the close of the year to stand before the class and 
give a short talk in clear sentences and well-selected words 
on some subject of interest. 


Since under the junior high school system the close of the 
sixth grade marks a transition period in the pupil’s life, a 
summary of sixth-grade objectives is here appended : 

To tell a short story in correct, well-chosen language, either 
orally or in writing; to write a friendly letter that is abso- 
lutely correct as to form, and that will interest the person to 
whom it is addressed; to write a simple business letter in 
approved form and in clear, concise language; to be sufhi- 
ciently interested in the environment to find much material for — 
thought and for use in language exercises; to attack intelli- 
gently bad habits of speech and fight them to a finish; to 
work with others in close, friendly intercourse in useful proj- 
ects; and to be able to stand before an audience and talk 
for three or four minutes on some interesting subject which has 
been mastered by using every available means of self-help. 


SEVENTH-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


To inventory English stock at the opening of the year and 
to set up definitely formulated aims to be attained; to con- 
tinue this practice throughout the year. Further to improve 
composition, oral and written, by learning more definitely 
how to choose a subject, and how to limit it; by giving special 
attention to opening and closing sentences; by learning how 


GRADE OBJECTIVES IN ENGLISH 285 


to classify ideas; by securing force and variety through 
varying the forms of sentences, inverting subject and predi- 
cate, and placing modifiers near the words they modify. 

To broaden and strengthen the social activities of the class 
by means of projects that demand initiative and careful plan- 
ning. To work in committees. 

To learn the inflections of the parts of speech that are in- 
volved in common errors of usage, and to attack these errors 
anew by applying when necessary the rules of grammar that 
are concerned; to use grammar wholly as a means of self- 
help either in composition or in overcoming bad speech hab- 
its; to understand simple, complex, and compound sentences 
as a means of improving sentence structure. 

To form, state, and maintain opinions, and to talk with- 
out self-consciousness when addressing the class or other 
audience. 


EIGHTH- AND NINTH-GRADE OBJECTIVES 


Still further to improve oral and written composition by 
building up a more mature vocabulary ; by more consciously 
learning from models studied; by using synonyms and anto- 
nyms; and by applying with more determination all that has 
previously been learned. To write a greater variety of moti- 
vated business letters; to write simple reports and editorials. 

To extend the social activities of the class by means of 
class organization, committees, and the like; to assume 
increased responsibility for conducting all class activities. 

To continue the study of grammar purely as a self-help 
activity ; to learn the more difficult inflections and apply the 
knowledge in an understanding way to. the correction of errors 
of speech; to learn to analyze sentences as a means of testing 
own sentences, and for help in interpreting the more involved 
sentences encountered in reading. 


286 SELF-HELP METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 


To learn methods of self-education that can be applied 
when school days are over. 

To stand before the class and make a five-minute address 
that was prepared by using every available help to secure the 
facts; by classifying the ideas and making an outline; and 
by carefully arranging the details under each topic so that the 
speech will have a suitable introduction, a main part that 
gives the facts in the right order, and an appropriate 
ending. 


uN 


INDEX 


Activities, self-help. See under Self- 
help. 

Aims: relation to self-help study, 46; 
setting up in composition, 67-68, 
223; recording in notebooks, 82; 
definite, in dramatization, 154. 

“And”: case of, 123. 

Assigning a lesson: illustration of, 
60; supplementing textbook 
when necessary in, 63. 

Bibliographies. See under Reading 
and study. 

Bulletin board, English: making and 
using, 83-84. 

Busy work: dangers in unsuper- 
vised, 34, 164. 


Capitalization: self-help study of, 
253-254. 
Carelessness: struggle against, 86, 


184, 203-204; a leading cause 
of poor English work, 118, 
158. 

Class organization: as a self-help 
activity, 87; as a project that 
cultivates initiative, 225; meth- 
ods of organization, 225-228; 
objection to, answered, 228-229. 

Composition: oral, see under Oral 
composition; written, see under 
Written composition. 

Contents: making a, for notebooks, 
79. 

Contrast, method of, in teaching: 55, 
67, 122, 139-140, 169-170, 186- 
187, 189-190. 

Conversation, informal: significance 
of term, 11; opportunities for, 
12, 16, 41, 79, 131, and through- 
out in connection with all school 
work requiring the use of lan- 
guage; practical suggestions for, 


12-15, 261-262; type lesson in, 
267-268; as a means of vocab- 
ulary growth, 268. 

Copying: motivating, 35, 36, 163; 
methods of teaching, 35, 160- 
162; function of, 159-160; 
correction of, 162; as a means 
of review, 220-221. 

Correct usage: miscellaneous sug- 
gestions, 15, 71, 104, 113-115, 
130-131, 213; enlisting pupils’ 
coéperation in securing, 80-81, 
97, 105, 110, 185, 221-222; im- 
portance of, 89; significance of 
term, 89; of the voice in enun- 
ciation and pronunciation, 89- 
95; treatment of individual 
cases, 93, 101, 108; games, 95- 
97; daily drills for, 97, 180, 185; 
of words, 99-101; social aspects 
of, 105, 110, 114, 115; Good- 
English Week, 113; relation of, 
to slang, 116-118. 

Criticism: of English in other sub- 
jects than composition, 15, 131, 
185, 192, 197-198; methods of, 
29-30, 32, 58, 68, 126-127, 129, 
167-168, 219; as a pupil self- 
help activity, 68; character- 
istics of effective, 68-70; as a 
means of discovering individual 
and class needs, 181-185, 218- 
222; as a help in making tem- 
porary measuring scales, 183- 
184, 219-220; as a help in using 
scale, 274-275. 


Dalton plan: how it cultivates self- 
help habits, 49. 

Definitions: use of exact language in 
framing, 191. 

Diagnostic tests: function and im- 
portance of, 277. 


287 


288 


Diaries: language value of keeping, 
173-174. 

Dictation: as a step in teaching 
written composition, studied, 
166; unstudied, 166; as a 
means of drill, 184, 190, 220-221. 

Dictionary: use of, a_ self-help 
activity, 72; training in use of, 
72-74; drill exercises in using, 
74; games, 75. 

Discussion. See under Thought and 
discussion. 

Dramatization: nature and value of, 
145-146; how different from 
reproduction, 146; foundation 
training for, 146-147; character- 
istics of suitable stories for, 147; 
stories for, 147-148, 150-151, 
151-152; how to deal with 
children reluctant to. take part 
in, 149; preliminary steps in, 
149-151; cautions regarding, 
153-154; collecting stories for, 
154-155. 


Ears: training to become sensitive 
to incorrect forms, 71. 

Efficiency: definition of, 78;  self- 
help activities that cultivate, 
78-87; projects that cultivate, 
225-230. 

English projects: types of, 217; 
illustrations of, 217-230. 

Enunciation, distinct: first steps in 
securing, 90; drill exercises, 91; 
treatment of individual cases, 93. 

Explaining: using exact language in, 
191-192. 

Eyes: training to detect errors in 
written work, 70-71; training 
in observation, 77-78. 


Fables : 
145. 
Factors: in the learning process, 44. 


value of, for memorizing, 


INDEX 


Games: for motivating writing single 
words, 36; for motivating writ- 
ing sentences, 36-37; fishing, 
36, 95; ladder climbing, 36, 95; 
question and answer, 37; Jack 
Horner, 95-96; advantage of 
small groups in playing, 97; 
as a conscious self-help ac- 
tivity, 98; for drill in correct 
usage, 101-104, 111; What did 
you see? 102; What does it do? 
102; circus, 102-103; colors, 
111. 

Gang instinct: using, 85, 115-116, 
203. See also under Teams. 
General Pershing: on letter writing, 

255. 

Good English. See under Correct 
usage. 

Good-English Week: as an aid in 
securing good English, 113. 
Good manners. See under Manners. 
Good posture. See under Posture. 

Grammar, functional: 

General: applying facts a self- 
help activity, 77; relation to 
habits and skills, 77; relation to 
correct usage, 115; contrasted 
with technical grammar, 204; 
summaries of facts of, 213-215, 
256-259; economy of using 
terms of, in teaching, 234. 

Sentence: motivation of, 233-234; 
the simple sentence, 234; study 
based on a composition problem, 
235; compound sentence, meth- 
ods and purpose of teaching, 
236-238; complex sentence, 
methods and purpose of teach- 
ing, 238-241; sentence building, 
242; analysis as a_ self-help 
activity, 242-244; what to teach 
and why, 256-257. 

Word: motivation of, 209-210, 
246-247; what to teach and 


INDEX 


why, about nouns, 210, 214, 
257; about verbs, 210, 214, 258; 
about adjectives, 214-215, 258; 
about pronouns, 214, 257; about 


interjections, 215; about ad- 
verbs, 215, 258; about con- 
junctions, 215, 259; about 
prepositions, 215, 259; type 


lessons, 211-213, 247-250. 
See also under Sentence study and 
Word study. 
Graph: for recording improvement 
in composition, 276. 


Habits: pre-school language, 10-11; 
foundation of both good and 


bad, 34; good English, how 
formed, 46, 81; definition of, 
66; developed by _ self-help 


activities, 66; poor speech, how 
corrected, 90. 
How to study. See under Study. 
Humor: as an aid in teaching, 190, 
241. 


Index: use of, 2, 41, 53, 76. 

Inductive method: illustrated by 
type lessons, see under Type 
lessons. 

Initiative: promoted by Dalton 
plan, 49; importance of, 225; 
projects that cultivate, 225-230. 

Inventory of English habits and 
skills: planning for, 217; secur- 
ing facts for, 218-222; making, 
222; sample form of, 222. 


Knowledge: relation to habits and 
skills, 72; self-help activities 
that result in, 72-78; applied, 
206 and throughout. 


Language: teacher’s, a model for 
pupils, 4; as a means of com- 
munication, 10, 244-245; rela- 
tion to other school subjects, 


289 


13, 47-48, 131, 185, 192, 197- 
198; textbook, learning to use, 
76; bulletin board, making and 
using, 83; drives in lower grades, 
108-111; drives in higher 
grades, 112-113. See also under 
Conversation, Correct usage, 
Grammar, Oral composition, Vo- 
cabulary, Word study, and 
Written composition. 

Learning: a self-help process, 1, 44; 
teacher’s relation to, 45-47; 
textbook relation to, 48-50; to 
study, 50-64. 

Lesson development: in connection 
with illustrative lessons, see 
under Type lessons. 

Lesson plans: function of, 22, 55. 

Letter writing: motivation of, 21, 
37-38, 165-166, 170-171, 173, 
201; progressive steps in teach- 
ing, 38, 165, 170-173, 188, 200— 
202, 255; models, 38, 171, 173; 
significance of paragraph in, 
171-172; keeping model forms 
in notebooks, 184, 202;  cor- 
responding with other schools, 
200; relative importance of, 
255; quotation from General 
Pershing on, 255. 


Manners, good: taught through 
dramatization, 152-153. 

Measuring scales for composition: 
need of, 270-271; kinds required, 
271; home-made, 271-274; 
teacher’s use of, 274; pupil’s 
use of, 274-275; standard, 276. 

Models of written work: importance 
of, 39, 164-165. 

Motivation: of class story-telling, 
26-27; of compositions, 28, 77; 
of written work, 34; of copying 
words, 35-36; of copying sen- 
tences, 36-37; of note writing, 


290 


37-38, 165; of a language drive, 
108; of letter writing, 173, 
200; of grammar study, 204-— 
205; of study of sentence forms, 
234; of analysis of sentences, 
242-244, 


Notebooks: as an aid in review, 76; 
as a means of gaining personal 
efficiency, 78; making, 79-83, 
224; as aids in vocabulary 
growth, 81-82, 85, 198; as a 
means of noting improvement in 
composition, 82; as a means of 
self-help in using good English, 
83; wrong method of making, 
87; repository for correct letter 
forms for reference, 184, 202; 
recording aims and inventory 
in, 222-223. 

Number work: relation to language, 
59; assigning a lesson in, 59-60; 
type lesson in, 59-62. 


Objectives in English: first-grade, 
280; second-grade, 280-281; 
third-grade, 281-282; fourth- 
grade, 282; fifth-grade, 282- 
283; sixth-grade, 283-284; sev- 
enth-grade, 284-285;  eighth- 
and ninth-grade, 285-286. 

Observation: suitable subjects for, 41, 
77-78; as a source of ideas, 77; 
learning by, 175-176, 253-254. 

Oral composition: need of lessons 
in, 16; significance of term, 16, 
121; when to begin, 17; aims 
in earliest grades, 17, 20, 120; 
a typical first lesson, 17-20; by- 
products of, 21; based on pic- 
tures, 22-27, 132, 181-182, 192— 
194; the class story as a form 
of socialized work, 26-27, 124, 
128, 182; relation to written 
composition, 177; using stand- 


INDEX 


ard compositions, 181-184, 
219-220; characteristics of a 
good, 218. Progressive steps in 
teaching: telling a story in 
response to questions, 17-20; 
telling a class story from a pic- 
ture, 22-26; telling original 
stories, 28-29; developing a 
sentence sense, 121-123; telling 
facts in right order, 134-136; 
choosing good beginning sen- 
tences, 136; learning to describe, 
136-138; sticking to the point, 
186-187; avoiding unnecessary 
beginning and ending sentences, 


187-188; using direct quota- 
tions, 189-191; using exact 
language, 191-194; studying 


the paragraph, 194-198; secur- 
ing force through variety in 
sentence form, 209, 233-241; 
the paragraph as a finished 
product, 231-233; securing 
force through placing of modi- 
fiers, 241. See also under 
Conversation, Correct usage, 
Vocabulary, and Word study. 
Paragraph study: developing a 
paragraph sense, 162-163; type 
lesson in, 194-198; the para- 
graph as part of a larger whole, 
195, 232-233; formulating top- 
ics, 196-197; influence on clear 
thinking, 197-198; making par- 
agraphs hang together, 199- 
200; the paragraph as a finished 
product, 231-232. 
Parent-teacher associations: codper- 
ation of home and school, 114, 
118. 
Parts of speech, functional study of. 
See under Grammar. 
Penmanship, good: as a form of 
social service, 162. 


INDEX 


Personality of the teacher: 
model, 46. 

Pictures: material for story-telling, 
21; story-telling based on, 22- 
26, 132, 192; learning to read, 
24-26; games based on, 37; 
description based on, 192-194. 

Poetry: to be preserved in note- 
books, 82. 

Politeness: in criticism, 69. 

Posters: use of, 105; illustrations 
of, 106, 107. 

Posture: importance of good, 15. 

Praise: value of specific, 32, 85. 

Projects: relation to language work, 
14, 16, 19, and throughout; 
importance of, in foundation 
work, 16; making storybooks, 
19-20, 164; discovering indi- 
vidual and class needs, 181- 
185; types of English, 217; 
making an inventory of English 
stock, 217-223; organizing the 
class, 225-228; starting a class 
paper, 228-230; suggestions for 
miscellaneous, 230; making 
rules for capital letters, 253- 
254. 

Pronunciation: use of dictionary 
in improving, 73-74; use of 
notebooks in correcting individ- 
ual errors, 80; how bad habits 
of, are formed, 93; methods for 
securing good, 93-97; pronun- 
ciation contests, 94-95; games, 
95-96; daily drills for correcting 
poor, 97. 

Punctuation : teaching only as 
needed, 34, 169; method of con- 
trast in teaching, possessive 
forms, 169-170; preventing mis- 
takes by anticipating needs, 
174-176; learning in the scien- 
tific way, 176; contrast in teach- 
ing the use of quotation marks, 


as a 


291 


189-191; as an aid in interpre- 
tation, 252-253. 

Pupil, the: pre-school language ac- 
quisitions of, 10-11; a self- 
active being, 44-45. See also 
under Self-help. 


Questions: training pupils to ask, 13; 
art of asking, by the teacher, 
262; functions of asking, in the 
teaching process, 262-263; mo- 
tivating, 263; practical sug- 
gestions concerning use of, 263; 
types to avoid, 264; training 
pupils to answer, 265; avoiding 
unnatural answers, 265-266. 


Reading: relation to language study, 
45; as a means of vocabulary 
growth, 198-199. 

Reading and study, by the teacher, 
references for: 9, 42-43, 64-65, 
88, 118-119, 155-156, 179, 216, 
260, 269, 277-279. 

Recitation, socialized. See 
Socialized recitation. 

Reference books: teaching to use, 
75. 

Reproduction: relation to vocabu- 
lary growth, 84, 141-144; how 
it differs from dramatization, 
140; value of, 140-141; to be 
progressively taught, 141; ques- 
tion-and-answer method of, 142; 
topic method of, 143-144; en- 
tire-story method, 144; mem- 
orized, 145. 

Responsibility, sense of: how cul- 
tivated, 47, 49, 68, 76, 78, 130, 
191. 

Reveries of a Schoolmaster, anecdote 
taken from, 46. 

Review: by means of textbook, 49; 
as a necessary step in self-help 
study, 63. 


under 


292 


Seales for measuring composition 
value: temporary, prepared by 
pupils, 219-220; why necessary, 
270-271; kinds required, 271; 
home-made scale, how to make, 
271-274; the teacher’s use of, 
274; the pupil’s use of, 274- 
275; recording results after use 
of, 275-276; graph for recording 
results, 276; standard scales, 
276-277. 

School paper: preparatory work, 
228-229; dangers that beset, 
229-230. See also under Proj- 
ects. 

Self-help: how developed, 47; ac- 
tivities that result in ideals, 6'7- 
71; activities that result in 
knowledge, 72-78; activities 
that result in efficiency, 78-87. 
See also under Projects. 

Self-Help Methods of Teaching Eng- 
lish, the book: significance of 
title, 1; purpose of book, 1-2; 
plan, 2-3; use for individual 
study, 3-5; use for group study, 
5-6; specific suggestions for 
group study, 6-7. 

Sentence sense: foundation of, 20; 
importance of, 121; develop- 
ment of, 121; a foundation drill, 
121-123; strengthening, by con- 
trast with titles that are not 
sentences, 138-139; strengthen- 
ing, by contrasting sentences 
with non-sentences used in con- 
versation, 139-140. 

Sentence study: the run-on sentence, 
dealing with, 122, 123, 207; 
how motivated, 204-205; how 
sentences are built, 204-206; 
the clause sentence, 208; prob- 
lem in, 235; gaining force in 
composition by variety in sen- 
tence form, 240-241; sentence 


INDEX 


building, 242; using analysis 
as means of interpreting, 242- 
. 44. See also under Grammar. 
Skills, English: definition of, 66; 
illustrations of, 66. 
Slang: classes of, 116; displacing, 
by building up vocabulary, 


117. 
Socialized recitation: false use of 
term, 86; what it actually is, 


86-87; illustrations of, furnished 
by all exercises that are carried 
on as far as possible by the 
pupils themselves. 

Speech defects: nature of, 90; need 
for specialist in treating, 90. 
Spelling: using dictionary for, as 
means of self-help, 72; using 
notebooks for correcting indi- 

vidual errors, 80. 

Standards: necessity for attainable, 
46; setting up, as a self-help 
activity, 70; setting up tem- 
porary, 181-182, 219-220. 

Story-telling : 

By the pupil: from pictures, 21- 
27, 131-132, 192; motivation 
of, 28; choosing subjects, 28, 
129-130; devices for securing 
preparation by all pupils, 130; 
intensive drills in, 138. See also 
under Oral composition. 

By the teacher: importance of, 
41-42. 

Study: definition of, 50; how a 
farmer studied, 50-51; how a 
young child studied, 51-52; 
how a fifth-grade boy studied, 
52-54; outlines of study proc- 
ess, 51, 52, 53-54, 58, 63; from 
a textbook, 54-58, 59-62, 108- 
111, and in connection with all 
illustrative lessons; supervised 
study, illustrations of, 195-196, 
250. 


INDEX 


Synonyms : study of, to combat slang, | Titles: 


117; to enrich vocabulary, 245. 


Teacher, the: functions of, 45-47. 

Teaching: significance of term, 1; 

illustrations of good, 24-27, and 

’ in connection with all illustrative 

lessons; illustration of uncon- 

scious, 87. See also under Type 
lessons. 

Teams: organizing, 85; functions 
of, 85; codperation of, with 
teacher, 86; other activities of, 
110, 203-204. See also under 
Class organization. 

Tests, diagnostic: use of, 179; im- 
portance of, 277. 

Textbook in English: study by 
teacher of adopted, 7; impor- 
tance of, 47-48; functions of, 
48-50; value as a_ reference 
book, 49, 76; teaching pupils 
how to use, 62-64; importance 
of using independently, 177; 
mastering, 224-225. 

TE latiore Roosevelt’s Letters to His 
Children, as the source of model 
letters, 200. 

Thinking: developing habit of clear, 
40; stimulated by right use of 


293 


contrasting with sentences, 
138-139; as an aid in strength- 
ening the sentence sense, 138- 
139, 205; deriving from sen- 
tences, 139; as an aid in ap- 
proaching study of subject and 
predicate, 205. 

Topical outlines: reproduction from, 
143; deriving topics from state- 
ments, 196-197; need of prac- 
tice in framing, 197; value of, 
in all study, 197-198; how to 
use, 233; avoiding artificial 
use of, 233. 

Type lessons: a first lesson in oral 
composition, 17-20; telling a 
story from a picture, 22-27; 
telling stories about pets, 54-58 ; 
relation of language to number 
work, 59-62; correct usage, 
99-101; a language drive, 108- 
112; developing a_ sentence 
sense, 121-123; telling a class 
story, 125-128; paragraph 
study, 194-198; studying per- 
sonal pronouns as a means of 
self-help, 211-213, 247-250; 
making original rules, 253-254; 
conversation lesson, 267-268. 


textbook, 48-49; basis of intel-| Visualization: training in, 35. 


ligent study, 50, 197-198; as a| Vocabulary: 


step in the study process, 51, 
52, 53-54, 58; cultivating habit 
of, 66; emphasized in criticism, 
123; relation to expanding 
vocabulary, 131; basis of intelli- 
gent composition work, 167; 
relation to intelligent punctua- 


tion, 170; made more effective | Voice: 


by expression, 266. 
Thought and discussion: questions 
and suggestions for, 8, 41-42, 


64, 87-88, 118, 155, 178-179,| Word study: 


215-216, 259, 269. 


child’s pre-school, 11; 
methods of securing growth of, 
74, 81-82, 117, 131, 137-138, 
141, 198, 199; detailed sugges- 
tions for securing expansion of, 
84-85, 245-246; influence of 
teacher’s, 85; growth of, as 
means of eliminating slang, 117. 
proper use of, 15, 89-98. 
See also under Correct usage and 
Speech defects. 


detailed suggestions 


for, 84-85, 245-246; words 


294 


Written composition: 


INDEX 


as carriers of thoughts, 244-245. 
See also under Correct usage, 
Grammar, and Vocabulary. 


Worth-while activities: relation of 


language training to, 261-262; 
characteristics of, 262. See also 
under Projects. 

foundation 
work, 33-39; relation to oral 
composition; 33, 159, 167, 177; 
prevention of errors vs. correc- 
tion of, 34, 174-175; methods 
of correction, 70-71; results of 
investigation of, 157-158; rem- 
edy for conditions discovered, 
158; specific problem of, 159; 
progressive steps in mechanics 
of, 159-177, 199, 231-235; im- 
portance of good models, 164— 


165; using models, 164, 168; 
methods of criticism, 167-168, 
219; frequency of lessons in 
early stages, 177; reporting 
progress in, 178; meeting in- 
dividual needs, 178, 199; dis- 
covering class and individual 
needs, 183-184, 199, 221; char- 
acteristics of good, 219; setting 
up temporary standards, 219- 
220; rating compositions by 
pupils, 221; for progressive steps 
in learning principles, see Oral 
composition ; motivation of, sug- 
gested throughout. See also 
under Copying, Dictation, Meas- 
uring scales for composition, 
and Punctuation. 


SCUUTYEUENN CUTE ESAS UA CELESTE OTE 


SELF-HELP 
ENGLISH LESSONS 


By Juytia H. WouLrartTH 
and JOHN J. MAHONEY 


A SERIES of language textbooks based upon five years’ 

investigation of methods and material. Careful 
testing and sifting of the collected data resulted in the 
organization of simple, systematic, well-balanced, pro- 
gressive lessons for each grade. 


The sane, inductive method employed leads to self-activity 
and self-reliance in the correction of common errors of 
speech; in the establishment of the sentence sense as an 
aid to clear thinking and expression; in accuracy of ex- 
pression in speaking and in writing (particularly thorough 
training in letter writing) ; in the enlargement of vocabu- 
lary through memory work and the reproduction of choice 
prose and poetry; in the application of the principles of 
functional grammar in using language; in the supplemen- 
tary reading of standard books; and in the estimation of 
the pupil’s own work and the correction of its weaknesses. 


First Book. Builds directly upon the language work of 
the first and second grades. For grades three and four. 
Cloth. viii + 250 pages. Illustrated. 


SEconD Boox. Builds upon the foundation laid in the 
First Book and contains a summary of that book. For 
grades five and six. Cloth. xiv + 338 pages. Illustrated. 


Tuirp Boox. Contains a summary of Second Book and 
builds systematically upon the work of the lower grades. 
For grades seven and eight. Cloth. Illustrated. 


TEACHER’s MANUAL. Contains material for dictation and 
other work and many valuable suggestions. 


WORLD BOOK COMPANY 


Yonxers-on-Hupson, New Yorx 
2126 Prarr1E AVENUE, CHICAGO 


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SCHOOL EFFICIENCY MONOGRAPHS 


STANDARDS IN ENGLISH 


By JOHN J. MAHONEY 


Principal State Normal School, Lowell, Massachusetts 


A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS 


that sets forth standards of achievement 
attainable by pupils 


HIS book sets forth the minimum standards 

that are to be expected in each year of the 
elementary English course. ‘Teachers are told ex- 
actly what to do and how to do it with the greatest 
economy of time. 


The content of a course in English is outlined by grades 
as follows: 
1. Specific statement of the aims of instruction. 
. Suggested illustrative material. 
. Illustrative oral efforts. 
. Common errors of speech and spelling. 
. Hints concerning what to do and how to do it. 
. Preparation for routine work. 


Nn ff W I 


STANDARDS IN ENGLISH is a workable course of study 
based on the determination of what children actually 
can do. The style is plain, direct, and non-technical. 
The extensive sale of the book attests its value to teachers. 


Kraft paper. xiv+1g0 pages. Price $1.20 


WORLD BOOK COMPANY 


YoNnKERS-ON-Hupson, NEw Yorx 


2126 PrartrigE AVENUE, CHICAGO 
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